Sermon and Worship Resources (2024)

The English word “messiah” derives from the Hebrew verb mashakh, which means “to anoint.” The Greek counterpart of the Hebrew word for “messiah” (mashiakh) is christos, which in English is “Christ.”

In English translations of the Bible, the word “messiah” (“anointed one”) occurs rarely in the OT. In the OT, kings, prophets, and priests were “anointed” with oil as a means of consecrating or setting them apart for their respective offices. Prophets and priests anointed Israel’s kings (1Sam. 16:1 13; 2Sam. 2:4, 7).

The expectation for a “messiah,” or “anointed one,” arose from the promise given to David in the Davidic covenant (2Sam. 7). David was promised that from his seed God would raise up a king who would reign forever on his throne. Hopes for such an ideal king began with Solomon and developed further during the decline (cf. Isa. 9:1–7) and especially after the collapse of the Davidic kingdom.

The harsh reality of exile prompted Israel to hope that God would rule in such a manner. A number of psalms reflect the desire that an ideal son of David would come and rule, delivering Israel from its current plight of oppression. Hence, in Ps. 2 God declares that his son (v.7), who is the Lord’s anointed one (v.2), will receive “the nations [as] your inheritance, the ends of the earth your possession” (v.8). God promises that “you will rule them with an iron scepter; you will dash them to pieces like pottery” (v.9; see NIV footnote). Jesus demonstrates great reticence in using the title “Messiah.” In the Synoptic Gospels he almost never explicitly claims it. The two key Synoptic passages where Jesus accepts the title are themselves enigmatic. In Mark’s version of Peter’s confession (8:29), Jesus does not explicitly affirm Peter’s claim, “You are the Messiah,” but instead goes on to speak of the suffering of the Son of Man. Later, Jesus is asked by the high priest Caiaphas at his trial, “Are you the Christ, the Son of the Blessed One?” (Mark 14:60). In Mark 14:62, Jesus answers explicitly with “I am,” while in Matt. 26:64, he uses the more enigmatic “You have said so.” Jesus then goes on to describe himself as the exalted Son of Man who will sit at Yahweh’s right hand.

Jesus no doubt avoided the title because it risked communicating an inadequate understanding of the kingdom and his messianic role. Although the Messiah was never a purely political figure in Judaism, he was widely expected to destroy Israel’s enemies and secure its physical borders. Psalms of Solomon portrays the coming “son of David” as one who will “destroy the unrighteous rulers” and “purge Jerusalem from Gentiles who trample her to destruction” (Pss. Sol. 17.21–23). To distance himself from such thinking, Jesus never refers to himself as “son of David” and “king of Israel/the Jews” as other characters do in the Gospels (Matt. 12:23; 21:9, 15; Mark 10:47; 15:2; John 1:49; 12:13; 18:33). When Jesus was confronted by a group of Jews who wanted to make him into such a king, he resisted them (John 6:15).

In Mark 12:35–37, Jesus also redefines traditional understandings of the son of David in his short discussion on Ps. 110:1: he is something more than a mere human son of David. Combining Jesus’ implicit affirmation that he is the Messiah in Mark 8:30 with his teaching about the Son of Man in 8:31, we see that Jesus is a Messiah who will “suffer many things and be rejected by the elders, the chief priests, and the teachers of the law” (8:31) and through whom redemption will come (10:45). Jesus came not to defeat the Roman legions, but to bring victory over Satan, sin, and death.

The tangible presence of God, experienced as overwhelming power and splendor. The main Hebrew word referring to glory, kabod, has the root meaning “heavy” (1Sam. 4:18), which in other contexts can mean “intense” (Exod. 9:3; NIV: “terrible”), “wealthy” (i.e., “heavy in possessions” [Gen. 13:2]), and “high reputation” (Gen. 34:19; NIV: “most honored”). When used of God, it refers to his person and his works. God reveals his glory to Israel and to Egypt at the crossing of the sea (Exod. 14:4, 1719). He carefully reveals his glory to Moses after Israel’s sin with the golden calf in order to assure him that he will not abandon them (33:12–23).

In the NT the glory of God is made real in the person of Jesus Christ (John 1:14; Heb. 1:3). He is, after all, the very presence of God. When he returns on the clouds, he will fully reveal God’s glory (Matt. 24:30; Mark 13:26; Luke 21:27).

Grace is the nucleus, the critical core element, of the redemptive and sanctifying work of the triune God detailed throughout the entire canon of Scripture. The variegated expressions of grace are rooted in the person and work of God, so that his graciousness and favor effectively demonstrated in every aspect of the created realm glorify him as they are shared and enjoyed with one another.

The biblical terminology informing an understanding of grace defines it as a gift or a favorable reaction or disposition toward someone. Grace is generosity, thanks, and good will between humans and from God to humans. Divine expressions of grace are loving, merciful, and effective. The biblical texts provide a context for a more robust understanding of divine gift. The overall redemptive-historical context of grace is the desire of the eternal God to bring glory to himself through a grace-based relationship with his creation. The Creator-Redeemer gives grace, and the recipients of grace give him glory.

Physiologically, the heart is an organ in the body, and in the Bible it is also used in a number of metaphors.

Metaphorically, the heart refers to the mind, the will, the seat of emotions, or even the whole person. It also refers to the center of something or its inner part. These metaphors come from the heart’s importance and location.

Mind. The heart refers to the mind, but not the brain, and in these cases does not involve human physiology. It is a metaphor, and while the neurophysiology of the heart may be interesting in its own right, it has no bearing on this use of language. Deuteronomy 6:5 issues the command to love God with all one’s heart, soul, and strength. When the command is repeated in the Gospels, it occurs in three variations (Matt. 22:37; Mark 12:30; Luke 10:27). Common to all three is the addition of the word “mind.” The Gospel writers want to be sure that the audience hears Jesus adding “mind,” but this addition is based on the fact that the meaning of the Hebrew word for “heart” includes the mind.

The mental activities of the metaphorical heart are abundant. The heart is where a person thinks (Gen. 6:5; Deut. 7:17; 1Chron. 29:18; Rev. 18:7), where a person comprehends and has understanding (1Kings 3:9; Job 17:4; Ps. 49:3; Prov. 14:13; Matt. 13:15). The heart makes plans and has intentions (Gen. 6:5; 8:21; Prov. 20:5; 1Chron. 29:18; Jer. 23:20). One believes with the heart (Luke 24:25; Acts 8:37; Rom. 10:9). The heart is the site of wisdom, discernment, and skill (Exod. 35:34; 36:2; 1Kings 3:9; 10:24). The heart is the place of memory (Deut. 4:9; Ps. 119:11). The heart plays the role of conscience (2Sam. 24:10; 1John 3:2021).

It is often worth the effort to substitute “mind” for “heart” when reading the Bible in order to grasp the mental dimension. For example, after telling the Israelites to love God with all their heart, Moses says, “These commandments that I give you today are to be upon your hearts” (Deut. 6:6). Reading it instead as “be on your mind” changes our perspective, and in this case the idiom “on your mind” is clearer and more accurate. The following verses instruct parents to talk to their children throughout the day about God’s words. In order for parents to do this, God’s requirements and deeds need to be constantly on their minds, out of their love for him. Similarly, love for God and loyalty are expressed by meditation on and determination to obey his law (Ps. 119:11, 112). The law is not merely a list of rules; it is also a repository of a worldview in which the Lord is the only God. To live consistently with this truth requires careful, reflective thought.

Emotions and attitude. The heart, as the seat of emotion, is associated with a number of feelings and sentiments, such as gladness (Exod. 4:14; Acts 2:26), hatred (Lev. 19:17), pride (Deut. 8:14), resentment (Deut. 15:10), dread (Deut. 28:67), sympathy (Judg. 5:9), love (Judg. 16:15), sadness (1Sam. 1:8; John 16:6), and jealousy and ambition (James 3:14). The heart is also the frame of reference for attitudes such as willingness, courage, and desire.

A kingdom signifies the reality and extent of a king’s dominion or rule (Gen. 10:10; 20:9; Num. 32:33; 2Kings 20:13; Esther 1:22). Some kingdoms were relatively small; others were concerted attempts to gain the whole world.

A kingdom presupposes monarchy, rule by an individual, human authority. Although kings only have as much authority as their armies and the general populace allow, they nevertheless exercise an almost absolute power, which invites either profound humility or hubris. Royal arrogance, unfortunately, is the primary motif characterizing kings in the Bible (e.g., Dan.3).

God originally intended Israel to be governed as a theocracy, ruled by the one, true, living God (but see Gen. 17:6; Deut. 17:1420). Israel was to be a “kingdom of priests” (Exod. 19:6), but the people demanded a king (1Sam. 8:1–22). However, even when God granted their request, God remained King over the king and even retained ownership of the land (Lev. 25:23, 42, 55). The Israelite king was nothing more than God’s viceroy, with delegated authority. With few exceptions, most of the kings of Israel and Judah were corrupted by authority and wealth and forgot God (1Sam. 13:13–14; 15:28; Matt. 14:6–11). But God made a covenant with David, so that one of his descendants would become a coregent in a restored theocracy, the kingdom of God (2Sam. 7:1–29; Pss. 89:3; 132:11). In contrast to David’s more immediate descendants, this coming king would return to Jerusalem humble and mounted on a donkey (Zech. 9:9; cf. Isa. 62:11). The Gospels present Jesus Christ as this king (Matt. 21:1–9 pars.). Those who are likewise humble will inherit the land with him (Matt. 5:5).

A Levite, the son of Izhar, of the family of Kohath (Exod. 6:21; Num. 16:1). Numbers 16 tells how Korah, along with the Reubenites Dathan, Abiram, and On, led a rebellion of 250 Israelite chiefs against Moses and Aaron. They challenged the validity of the Aaronic priesthood and claimed that the entire congregation was holy and fit to perform the priestly functions. They also questioned the authority of Moses over all the tribes because he was not from the tribe of Reuben, the firstborn of Israel.

Moses was then directed by Yahweh to have the congregation move away from the dwellings of Korah, Dathan, and Abiram. Moses went to Dathan and Abiram, and they came out and stood at the entrance of their tents along with their households. Then the ground opened up and swallowed Korah, Dathan, Abiram, and all that belonged to them (their households and their goods). The sons of Korah, however, did not die (see Num. 26:11). Fire came down from Yahweh and consumed the 250 men with the censers. The censers were taken by Eleazar, the son of Aaron, and hammered into plates to cover the altar as a sign to the Israelites that only the descendants of Aaron should draw near to burn incense before Yahweh. See also Korahites.

In the OT there is no language or understanding comparable to modern ways of talking about prayer as conversational or dialogical. Prayer does not involve mutuality. Prayer is something that humans offer to God, and the situation is never reversed; God does not pray to humans. Understanding this preserves the proper distinction between the sovereign God and the praying subject. Therefore, prayers in the OT are reverential. Some OT prayers have extended introductions, such as that found in Neh. 1:5, that seem to pile up names for God. These should be seen as instances not of stiltedness or ostentation, but rather as setting up a kind of “buffer zone” in recognition of the distance between the Creator and the creature. In the NT, compare the same phenomenon in Eph. 1:17.

A presupposition of prayer in the OT is that God hears prayer and may indeed answer and effect the change being requested. Prayer is not primarily about changing the psychological state or the heart of the one praying, but rather about God changing the circ*mstances of the one praying.

The depiction of prayer in the NT is largely consistent with that of the OT, but there are important developments.

Jesus tells his disciples to address God as “Father” (Matt. 6:9; cf. Rom. 8:15; Gal. 4:6). Prayer to God is now to be made in the name of Jesus (Matt. 18:1920; John 14:13; 15:16; 16:23–26).

Prayer can also be made to Jesus (John 14:14), and such devotion to him in the early church is evidence of his being regarded as deity. Unlike anything prior in the OT, Jesus tells his followers to pray for their enemies (Matt. 5:44). Jesus and his followers serve as examples (Luke 23:34; Acts 7:60).

The Holy Spirit plays a vital role in prayers. It is by him that we are able to call out, “Abba, Father” (Rom. 8:15; Gal. 4:6). The Spirit himself intercedes for us (Rom. 8:26). Our praying is to be done in the Spirit (Eph. 6:18; Jude 20; possibly 1Cor. 14:15).

Jesus encourages fervent and even continual or repeated prayer (Luke 18:1–8), but not showy or repetitive prayer (Matt. 6:5–8).

Jesus becomes the model of prayer. He prays before important decisions (Luke 6:12–13) and in connection with significant crisis points (Matt. 14:23; 26:36–44; Luke 3:21; 9:29; John 12:27). He offers prayers that are not answered (Luke 22:41–44) and prayers that are (Heb. 5:7). Even as he tells his disciples to always pray and not give up (Luke 18:1 [which is also the meaning of the sometimes overly literalized “pray without ceasing” in 1Thess. 5:17 NRSV]), so he himself wrestles in prayer (Luke 22:41–44; Heb. 5:7). He has prayed for his disciples (John 17; Luke 22:32), and even now, in heaven, he still intercedes for us (Heb. 7:25). Indeed, our intercession before God’s throne is valid because his is (Heb. 4:14–16).

In an agrarian society with an unpredictable climate, such as Israel, rainfall was of the utmost importance. Two rainy periods could be hoped for each year, in February/March and in October/November, and these seasons were critical in producing a good crop. Regular rainfall thus formed a significant part of God’s promise of a good and fruitful land for his people (Lev. 26:4). Solomon’s prayer acknowledges the conditional nature of this promise: rain would be withheld from a sinful nation but would be given to a forgiven and obedient people (1Kings 8:3536).

Rain could also be sent in judgment, most notably in the flood narratives, where God sent rain in order to destroy all living things on the face of the earth (Gen. 7:4), and in the exodus narrative, where rain accompanied hail and thunder in the seventh plague (Exod. 9:23).

Since rain is completely beyond human control, it naturally became a symbol of God’s sovereignty in both blessing and curse. A striking example of this is in 1Kings 17–18, when for three years the rains were withheld, until finally Elijah’s trust in God was vindicated above the prophets of Baal, and the rain followed. The effectiveness of Elijah’s prayers, first for drought and later for rain, is held up in the NT as an example for all believers (James 5:17–18).

The sun was worshiped as a god or goddess in all the nations around Israel in OT times, and the polemic against sun worship in Deut. 4:19; 17:3; Jer. 8:2; Job 31:2628 suggests that sun worship also made inroads into Israel. By way of contrast, the OT attests to the sun’s created status (Gen. 1:16) and counts it as subject to God’s control (e.g., Josh. 10:12–13).

In the OT, the sun often is associated with and symbolic of life (e.g., Eccles. 7:11; cf. Ps. 58:8) or justice (Ps. 19:6; Job 38:13; Mal. 4:2; cf. 2Sam. 23:3–4). The darkening of the sun is presented as a sign of judgment heralding the day of the Lord (Isa. 13:10; Ezek. 32:7; Joel 2:10, 31; 3:15; Amos 8:9; Matt. 24:29; Mark 13:24; Rev. 6:12; 9:2), which many associate with the darkness that fell during the crucifixion (Matt. 27:45; Mark 15:33; Luke 23:44).

Jerusalem was held by the Jebusites, who mocked David’s forces. But David captured the city, which from then on bore the title “City of David,” also called “fortress of Zion” (2Sam. 5:59). David made it his capital. Later, Solomon built the temple there, making it also the religious center of the nation (1Kings 8:1–14). “Zion” (of uncertain meaning) sometimes is a designation for the city of Jerusalem. It is said to have towers, ramparts, and citadels (Ps. 48:12–13), and Jeremiah prophesied its razing (Jer. 26:18). But it is also a designation for the mountain on which the city is built (Isa. 24:23; Zech. 8:3).

Since the God of Israel has a special relationship with Israel and its king, God’s purposes for the world often are couched in terms of Mount Zion. God set his king on Mount Zion (Ps. 2:6). The psalmist praises God, who has established Zion “forever” (Ps. 48:1–8). It is there that God is said to reign (Isa. 24:23). Nevertheless, the king on David’s throne and the inhabitants of Zion can be censured by God and found wanting (Amos 6:1). In fact, it is precisely because God identifies with the city that the people bear particular responsibility to represent his character. Thus, the time came when Zion was indeed “plowed like a field” (Mic. 3:12). Lamentations mourns Zion’s destruction numerous times. After God’s people spent a period of time in exile, God brought them back to Zion (Ps. 126). Although the ancient city was again destroyed by the Romans, Zion has become in the NT a symbol of the present heavenly dwelling place of God, entered into by faith (Heb. 12:22), and the future destiny of the saints (Rev. 14:1).

Altars were places of sacrifice and worship constructed ofvarious materials. They could be either temporary or permanent. Somealtars were in the open air; others were set apart in a holy place.They could symbolize either God’s presense and protection orfalse worship that would lead to God’s judgment.

OldTestament

Noahand the patriarchs. Thefirst reference in the Bible is to an altar built by Noah after theflood (Gen. 8:20). This action suggests the sanctuary character ofthe mountain on which the ark landed, so that theologically the ark’sresting place was a (partial) return to Eden. The purpose of theextra clean animals loaded onto the ark was revealed (cf. 7:2–3).They were offered up as “burnt offerings,” symbolizingself-dedication to God at this point of new beginning for the humanrace.

Abrambuilt altars “to the Lord” at places where God appearedand spoke to him (Gen. 12:7) and where he encamped (12:8; 13:3–4,18). No sacrifice is explicitly mentioned in association with thesealtars. Thus, they may have had the character of monuments ormemorials of significant events. In association with Abram’saltars, he is said to have “called on the name of the Lord”(12:8)—that is, to pray. The elaborate cultic proceduresassociated with later Israelite altars (e.g., the mediation ofpriests) were absent in the patriarchal period. Succeedinggenerations followed the same practices: Isaac (26:25) and Jacob(33:20; 34:1, 3, 7). God’s test of Abraham involved the demandthat he sacrifice his son Isaac as a burnt offering. In obedience,Abraham built an altar for this purpose, but through God’sintervention a reprieve was granted, and a ram was substituted (22:9,13). Moses erected an altar after the defeat of Amalek at Rephidim,to commemorate this God-given victory (Exod. 17:15–16).

Mosesand the tabernacle.In the context of making the covenant with Israel at Sinai, God gaveMoses instructions on how to construct an altar (Exod. 20:24–26;cf. Josh. 8:31). It could be “an altar of earth” (ofsun-dried mud-brick construction?) or else made of loose naturalstones. The Israelites were expressly forbidden to use hewn stones,perhaps for fear of an idolatrous image being carved (making thisprohibition an application of Exod. 20:4; cf. Deut. 27:5–6).Even if the altar was large, it was not to be supplied with steps forthe priest to ascend, lest his nakedness be shown to God. Therequirement that priests wear undergarments reflects the same concern(Exod. 28:42–43). An altar made of twelve stones, the numberrepresenting the number of the tribes of Israel, was built by Mosesfor the covenant-making ceremony (Exod. 24:4), in which half theblood of the sacrifice was sprinkled on the altar (representing God?)and the other half on the people, the action symbolizing the covenantbond created (24:6–8).

Forthe tabernacle, a portable “altar of burnt offering” wasmade (Exod. 27:1–8; 38:1–7). It had wooden framessheathed in bronze and featured a horn at each corner. There was aledge around the altar halfway up its sides, from which was hungbronze grating, and it had four bronze rings into which poles wereslipped for transport. As part of the cultic ritual, blood wassmeared on the horns (29:12). This altar stood in the open air in thecourtyard of the tabernacle, near the entrance to the tabernacle.Included among the tabernacle furnishings was a smaller “altarof incense,” with molding around the top rim (30:1–10;37:25–28). This altar was, however, overlaid with gold, for itstood closer to God’s ritual presence, inside the tabernacle,“in front of the curtain that shields the Ark of the Covenantlaw,” the curtain that separated the most holy place from theholy place. The high priest placed fragrant incense on this altarevery morning and evening. The fact that this was a daily procedureand the description of the positioning of the tabernacle furnishingsin Exod. 40:26–28 (mentioning the altar of incense afterspeaking about the lampstand) might be taken as implying that theincense altar was in the holy place, but 1 Kings 6:22 and Heb.9:4 suggest that it was actually in the most holy place, near theark.

God,through Moses, instructed the people that on entering the PromisedLand they were to destroy all Canaanite altars along with the otherparaphernalia of their pagan worship (Deut. 7:5; 12:3). Bronze Agealtars discovered at Megiddo include horned limestone incense altarsand a large circular altar mounted by a flight of steps. In Josh. 22the crisis caused by the building of “an imposing altar”by the Transjordanian tribes was averted when these tribes explainedto the rest of the Israelites that it was intended as a replica ofthe altar outside the tabernacle and not for the offering ofsacrifices. The worship of all Israel at the one sanctuary bothexpressed and protected the religious unity and purity of the nationat this vital early stage of occupation of the land. In laternarratives, however, Gideon (Judg. 6), Samuel (1 Sam. 7:17),Saul (1 Sam. 14:35), and David (2 Sam. 24) are said tobuild altars for sacrifice and to have done so with impunity, and infact with the apparent approval of the biblical author. Theestablished custom of seeking sanctuary from threat of death in thenation’s shrine is reflected in 1 Kings 1:50–53;2:28–35, where Adonijah and Joab are described as “clingingto the horns of the altar.”

Solomon’stemple and rival worship centers.In the temple built by Solomon, the altar of incense that belonged tothe “inner sanctuary” was overlaid with gold (1 Kings6:20, 22). Solomon’s prayer at the dedication of the temple wasmade before the bronze altar in the courtyard (1 Kings 8:22,54). The altar for sacrifices was much larger than the one that hadbeen in the tabernacle (1 Chron. 4:1 gives its dimensions).

Althoughmany of the psalms may originally have been used in worship in thefirst temple, there are surprisingly few references to the altar inthe Psalter (only Pss. 26:6; 43:4; 51:19; 84:3; 118:27). They expressthe psalmist’s devotion to God and the temple as the placewhere God’s presence is enjoyed as the highest blessing.

Afterthe division of the kingdom, Jeroboam offered sacrifices at the rivalaltar that he set up in Bethel (1 Kings 12:32–33). Anunnamed “man of God” (= prophet) predicted Josiah’sdesecration of this altar, which lay many years in the future(1 Kings 13:1–5). Amos and Hosea, who prophesied in thenorthern kingdom of the eighth century BC, condemned this and theother altars in that kingdom (e.g., Amos 3:14; Hos. 8:11–13).Ahab set up an altar to Baal in Samaria (1 Kings 16:32), and thesuppression of Yahwism by Jezebel included the throwing down of theLord’s altars in Israel (19:10, 14). The competition on MountCarmel between Elijah and the prophets of Baal involved rival altars(1 Kings 18), and Elijah’s twelve-stone altar recalls thatof Exod. 24, for he was calling the nation back to the exclusivemonotheism preached by Moses (1 Kings 18:30–32).

Withregard to the southern kingdom, the spiritual declension in the timeof Ahaz manifested itself in this king making an altar modeled on theAssyrian prototype that he had seen on a visit to Damascus (2 Kings16:10–14). He shifted the Lord’s altar from in front ofthe temple, where it had previously stood. Godly Hezekiah’sreligious reform included the removal of the altars at the highplaces that up to that time had been centers of deviant worship(2 Kings 18:4, 22). The apostasy of King Manasseh showed itselfin his rebuilding the high places that Hezekiah his father haddestroyed and in erecting altars to Baal (2 Kings 21), thusrepeating the sin of Ahab (cf. 1 Kings 16:32). Josiah’sreform included the destruction of all altars outside Jerusalem(2 Kings 23) and the centralizing of worship in the Jerusalemtemple.

InEzekiel’s vision of the new temple of the future, thesacrificial altar is its centerpiece (Ezek. 43:13–17). Thealtar was to be a large structure, with three-stepped stages and ahorn on each corner, and it was to be fitted with steps on itseastern side for the use of the priests.

Thesecond temple.The Israelites’ return from Babylonian exile was with theexpress aim of rebuilding the temple. The first thing that thepriests did was to build “the altar on its foundation”(i.e., its original base; Ezra 3:2–3). The returnees placed thealtar on the precise spot that it had occupied before the Babyloniansdestroyed it along with the temple. They took such care because theywanted to ensure that God would accept their sacrifices and so grantthem protection. At the very end of the OT period, the prophetMalachi condemned the insincerity of Israel’s worship that wasmanifested in substandard sacrifices being offered on God’saltar (Mal. 1:7, 10; 2:13).

NewTestament

Inthe NT, the altar is mentioned in a number of Jesus’ sayings(e.g., Matt. 5:23–24; 23:18–20). In the theology of thebook of Hebrews, which teaches about the priesthood of Jesus Christ(in the order of Melchizedek), the role of the priest is defined asone who “serve[s] at the altar” (7:13), and Christ’saltar (and that of Christ’s followers) is the cross on which heoffered himself as a sacrifice for sin (13:10). Another argument ofHebrews is that since on the most important day in the Jewish ritualcalendar (the Day of Atonement), the flesh of the sacrifice was noteaten (see Lev. 16:27), the eating of Jewish ceremonial foods is notrequired, nor is it of any spiritual value. The altar in the heavenlysanctuary is mentioned a number of times in the book of Revelation(6:9; 8:3, 5; 9:13; 11:1; 14:18; 16:7). It is most likely the altarof incense and is related to the prayers of God’s persecutedpeople, which are answered by the judgments of God upon the people ofthe earth.

Levitical priests served as doorkeepers, or gatekeepers (see2Chron. 34:9), responsible for collecting money from Israelitecensus taxes and sacrificial gifts to be used for temple maintenance(2Kings 12:10; 22:4; 23:4; 25:18; Jer. 52:24). Gatekeepers werealso tasked with restricting entrance to the temple in order topreserve its purity (2Chron. 23:19). Levitical priests wereappointed as doorkeepers responsible for aspects of thetransportation of the ark of the covenant (1Chron. 15:23–24).The job of doorkeeper apparently was low in prestige, as Ps. 84:10indicates when it contrasts the excellence of serving as a lowlydoorkeeper in God’s temple with the evil of dwellingcomfortably in the tents of wicked people.

Elsewherein the Bible, eunuchs guard the doorway to the Persian king’spalace (Esther 2:21). In John 18:16–17, while Caiaphasquestions Jesus, Peter remains outside the court of the high priest,where a young girl, who is responsible for letting people into thecourt and passing messages on to the priestly authorities, standswatch. See also Gatekeeper.

Dwelling can refer to a place (“building, residence”[e.g., Exod. 15:17; Acts 7:46]) or an action (“to reside”[e.g., 1Sam. 2:29]). While dwelling characterizes people’sresidence (Gen. 27:39; Num. 24:21; Prov. 24:15; Isa. 32:18; Hab. 1:6;Zeph. 3:6–7), God’s sanctuary, where the ark of thecovenant resides (Exod. 25–26; Ps. 132:8), is described as hisdwelling among his people (Exod. 15:13, 17; Lev. 15:31; 26:11; 1Sam.2:29, 32; 1Chron. 9:19; Zech. 2:13). Both the tabernacle(2Sam. 7:6; 15:25; 1Chron. 16:1) and the temple (2Chron.31:2; 36:15; Pss. 84:1; 132:5; Ezek. 3:12; Mic. 1:2–3) are sodescribed. A sanctuary for the needy and oppressed (Pss. 27:5; 31:20;68:5), it is also a post from which God watches the earth (Pss.33:14; 132:6–9). God himself can also be described as a“dwelling” in which people seek refuge (Pss. 90:1; 91:9;Ezek. 37:27).

Deuteronomy,perhaps in an effort to eliminate any misconception of God’somnipresence or in reaction to the destruction of the first temple,describes the sanctuary as the “dwelling for his Name”(Deut. 12:11; 14:23; 16:2, 6, 11; 26:2; cf. 1Kings 8:29; Isa.18:2–7; Jer. 7:12), while Kings and Chronicles (1Kings8:30, 39, 43, 49; cf. 1Chron. 17:5; 2Chron. 6:21, 30, 33,39; 30:27) maintain that God’s dwelling is in heaven and not onearth. As Solomon confesses, not even the heavens can contain God,let alone a temple (1Kings 8:27; cf. Ps.74:7; Jer. 25:30). Someprophets and writings refer to Jerusalem, the location of the nowdestroyed temple, as the “dwelling of God” (e.g., Ezra7:15; Jer. 31:23; Lam. 2:6), while others prefer the “dwellingplace of God’s Name” (e.g., Neh. 1:9; Isa. 18:7).

Job’sfriend Bildad identifies the dwelling of an evil person as onecharacterized by calamities (Job 18:5–21), while Job, who wantsto make his claim of innocence to God, laments his inability tolocate God’s dwelling (23:3).

Jesusis described in John’s Gospel as the Word (logos) of God thatdwelled or “tabernacled” (skēnoō) among humans(John 1:14). Paul describes believers as groaning in waiting to beclothed with their “heavenly dwelling,” by which theyattain immortality (2Cor. 5:2–4), and says that they arebeing built into a dwelling of God’s Spirit (Eph. 2:22). Thislatter sentiment is echoed in Revelation, which says that the newcity of God will need no physical temple because God and the Lambthemselves are the temple, dwelling among the people (21:3, 22; cf.1Cor. 3:16–17).

For Christians, God is the creator of the cosmos and theredeemer of humanity. He has revealed himself in historicalacts—namely, in creation, in the history of Israel, andespecially in the person and work of Jesus Christ. There is only oneGod (Deut. 6:4); “there is no other” (Isa. 45:5). Because“God is spirit” (John 4:24), he must reveal himselfthrough various images and metaphors.

Imageryof God

God’scharacter and attributes are revealed primarily through the use ofimagery, the best and most understandable way to describe themysterious nature of God. Scripture employs many images to describeGod’s being and character. Some examples follow here.

Godis compared to the father who shows compassion and love to hischildren (Ps. 103:13; Rom. 8:15). The father image is also used bythe prophets to reveal God’s creatorship (Isa. 64:8). Jesuspredominantly uses the language of “Father” in referenceto God (Mark 8:38; 13:32; 14:36), revealing his close relationshipwith the Father. God is also identified as the king of Israel evenbefore the Israelites have a human king (1Sam. 10:19).

ThePsalter exalts Yahweh as the king, acknowledging God’ssovereignty and preeminence (Pss. 5:2; 44:4; 47:6–7; 68:24;74:12; 84:3; 95:3; 145:1). God is metaphorically identified as theshepherd who takes care of his sheep, his people, to depict hisnature of provision and protection (Ps. 23:1–4). The image ofthe potter is also employed to describe the nature of God, whocreates his creatures according to his will (Jer. 18:6; Rom.9:20–23). In Hos. 2:4–3:5 God is identified as thelong-suffering husband of the adulterous wife Israel. In the settingof war, God is depicted as the divine warrior who fights against hisenemy (Exod. 15:3).

Godis also referred to as advocate (Isa. 1:18), judge (Gen. 18:25), andlawgiver (Deut. 5:1–22). The image of the farmer is alsofrequently adopted to describe God’s nature of compassionatecare, creation, providence, justice, redemption, sanctification, andmore (e.g., Isa. 5:1–7; John 15:1–12). God is oftenreferred to as the teacher (Exod. 4:15) who teaches what to do, asdoes the Holy Spirit in the NT (John 14:26). The Holy Spirit isidentified as the counselor, the helper, the witness, and the guide(John 14:16, 26; 15:26). God is often metaphorically compared tovarious things in nature, such as rock (Ps. 18:2, 31, 46), light (Ps.27:1), fire (Deut. 4:24; 9:3), lion (Hos. 11:10), and eagle (Deut.32:11–12). In particular, the Davidic psalms employ many imagesin nature—rock, fortress, shield, horn, and stronghold (e.g.,Ps. 18:2)—to describe God’s perfect protection.

Last,anthropomorphism often is employed to describe God’sactivities. Numerous parts of the human body are used to speak ofGod: face (Num. 6:25–26), eyes (2Chron. 16:9), mouth(Deut. 8:3), ears (Neh. 1:6), nostrils (Exod. 15:8), hands (Ezra7:9), arms (Deut. 33:27), fingers (Ps. 8:3), voice (Exod. 15:26),shoulders (Deut. 33:12), feet (Ps. 18:9), and back (Exod. 33:21–22).

Namesand Attributes of God

TheOT refers to God by many names. One of the general terms used forGod, ’el (which probably means “ultimate supremacy”),often appears in a compound form with a qualifying word, as in ’el’elyon (“God Most High”), ’el shadday (“GodAlmighty”), and ’el ro’i (“the God who seesme” or “God of my seeing”). These descriptive namesreveal important attributes of God and usually were derived from thepersonal experiences of the people of God in real-life settings;thus, they do not describe an abstract concept of God.

Themost prominent personal name of God is yahweh (YHWH), which istranslated as “the Lord” in most English Bibles. At theburning bush in the wilderness of Horeb, God first revealed to Moseshis personal name in sentence form: “I am who I am”(Exod. 3:13–15). Though debated, the divine name “YHWH”seems to originate from an abbreviated form of this sentence. Yahweh,who was with Moses and his people at the time of exodus, is the Godwho was with Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. According to Jesus’testimony, “the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, and the Godof Jacob” is identified as the God “of the living”(Matt. 22:32). Hence, the name “Yahweh” is closely tiedto God’s self-revelation as the God of presence and life. (Seealso Names of God.)

Manyof God’s attributes are summarized in Exod. 34:6–7: “TheLord, the Lord, the compassionate and gracious God, slow to anger,abounding in love and faithfulness, maintaining love to thousands,and forgiving wickedness, rebellion and sin. Yet he does not leavethe guilty unpunished; he punishes the children and their childrenfor the sin of the parents to the third and fourth generation.”Below are further explanations of some of the representativeattributes of God.

Holiness.The moral excellence of God is the attribute that underlies all otherattributes. Thus, all God’s attributes can be modified by theadjective holy: holy love, holy justice, holy mercy, holyrighteousness, holy compassion, holy wisdom, and so forth. God is theonly supremely holy one (1Sam. 2:2; Rev. 15:4). God’sname is also holy; those who profane God’s name are condemnedas guilty (Exod. 20:7; Lev. 22:32). God is depicted as the one whohas concern for his holy name, which the Israelites profaned amongthe nations; God actively seeks to restore the holiness of hisdefiled name (Ezek. 36:21–23). God’s holiness is revealedby his righteous action (Isa. 5:16). Not only is God holy, but alsohe expects his people to be holy (Lev. 11:45; 19:2). All thesacrificial codes of Leviticus represent the moral requirements ofholiness for the worshipers. Because of God’s character ofholiness, he cannot tolerate sin in the lives of people, and hebrings judgment to those who do not repent (Hab. 1:13).

Loveand justice.Because “God is love,” no one reaches the true knowledgeof God without having love (1John 4:8). Images of the fatherand the faithful husband are frequently employed to portray God’slove (Deut. 1:31; Jer. 31:32; Hos. 2:14–20; 11:1–4).God’s love was supremely demonstrated by the giving of his onlySon Jesus Christ for his people (John 3:16; Rom. 5:7–8; 1John4:9–10). God expects his people to follow the model of Christ’ssacrificial love (1John 3:16).

God’sjustice is the foundation of his moral law and his ways (Deut. 32:4;Job 34:12; Ps. 9:16; Rev. 15:3). It is also seen in his will (Ps.99:4). God loves justice and acts with justice (Ps. 33:5). God’sjustice is demonstrated in judging people according to theirdeeds—punishing wickedness and rewarding righteousness (Ezek.18:20; Ps. 58:11; Rev. 20:12–13). God establishes justice byupholding the cause of the oppressed (Ps. 103:6) and by vindicatingthose afflicted (1Sam. 25:39). God is completely impartial inimplementing justice (Job 34:18–19). As with holiness, Godrequires his people to reflect his justice (Prov. 21:3).

Godkeeps a perfect balance between the attributes of love and justice.God’s love never infringes upon his justice, and vice versa.The cross of Jesus Christ perfectly shows these two attributes in oneact. Because of his love, God gave his only Son for his people;because of his justice, God punished his Son for the sake of theirsins. The good news is that God’s justice was satisfied by thework of Jesus Christ (Rom. 3:25–26).

Righteousnessand mercy.God’s righteousness shows his unique moral perfection. God’snature, actions, and laws display his character of righteousness(Pss. 19:8–9; 119:137; Dan. 9:14). “Righteousness andjustice” are the foundation of God’s throne (Ps. 89:14).God’s righteousness was especially demonstrated in the work ofJesus Christ (Rom. 3:21–22). God’s righteousness willultimately be revealed in his final judgment (Rev. 19:2; 20–22;cf. Ps. 7:11).

TheEnglish word “mercy” renders various words in theoriginal languages: in Hebrew, khesed, khanan, rakham; in Greek,charis, eleos, oiktirmos, splanchnon. English Bibles translate thesevariously as “mercy,” “compassion,” “grace,”“kindness,” or “love.” The word “mercy”is chosen here as a representative concept (cf. Ps. 86:15). God’smercy is most clearly seen in his act of forgiving sinners. In thePsalter, “Have mercy on me” is the most common form ofexpression when the psalmist entreats God’s forgiveness (Pss.41:4, 10; 51:1). God’s mercy is shown abundantly to his chosenpeople (Eph. 2:4–8). Because of his mercy, their sins areforgiven (Mic. 7:18), their punishments are withheld (Ezra 9:13), andeven sinners’ prayers are heard (Ps. 51:1; Luke 18:13–14).God is “the Father of mercies” (2Cor. 1:3 NRSV).

Godkeeps a perfect balance between righteousness and mercy. Hisrighteousness and mercy never infringe upon each other, nor does oneoperate at the expense of the other. God’s abundant mercy isshown to sinners through Jesus Christ, but if they do not repent oftheir sins, his righteous judgment will be brought upon them.

Faithfulness.God’s faithfulness is revealed in keeping the covenant that hemade with his people. God “is the faithful God, keeping hiscovenant of love to a thousand generations of those who love him andkeep his commandments” (Deut. 7:9). God is faithful to hischaracter, his name, and his word (Neh. 9:8; Ps. 106:8; 2Tim.2:13; Heb. 6:13–18). God’s faithfulness is clearly seenin fulfilling his promise (Josh. 23:14). God showed his faithfulnessby fulfilling all the promises that he made to Abraham (Gen. 12:2–3;Rom. 9:9; Gal. 4:28; Heb. 6:13–15), by having Solomon build thetemple that he promised to David (2Sam. 7:12–13; 1Kings8:17–21), and by sending his people into exile in Babylon andreturning them to their homeland (Jer. 25:8–11; Dan. 9:2–3).God’s faithfulness was ultimately demonstrated by sending JesusChrist, as was promised in the OT (Luke 24:44; Acts 13:32–33;1Cor. 15:3–8).

Goodness.Jesus said, “No one is good—except God alone” (Mark10:18). God demonstrates his goodness in his actions (Ps. 119:68), inhis work of creation (1Tim. 4:4), in his love (Ps. 86:5), andin his promises (Josh. 23:14–15).

Patience.God is “slow to anger” (Exod. 34:6; Num. 14:18), which isa favorite expression for his patience (Neh. 9:17; Pss. 86:15; 103:8;Joel 2:13). God is patient with sinful people for a long time (Acts13:18). Because of his patient character, he delays punishment (Isa.42:14). For instance, God was patient with his disobedient prophetJonah and also with the sinful people of Nineveh (Jon. 3:1–10).The purpose of God’s patience is to lead people towardrepentance (Rom.2:4).

Godof the Trinity

TheChristian God of the Bible is the triune God. God is one but existsin three persons: the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit (Matt.28:19). The Son is one with the Father (John 10:30); the Holy Spiritis one with God (2Sam. 23:2–3). All three share the samedivine nature; they are all-knowing, holy, glorious, and called“Lord” and “God” (Matt. 11:25; John 1:1;20:28; Acts 3:22; 5:3–4; 10:36; 1Cor. 8:6; 2Cor.3:17–18; 2Pet. 1:1). All three share in the same work ofcreation (Gen. 1:1–3), salvation (1Pet. 1:2), indwelling(John 14:23), and directing the church’s mission (Matt.28:18–20; Acts 16:6–10; 14:27; 13:2–4).

In the ancient world, shame and honor are two binaryopposites used to depict one’s status or behavior, which aculture approves or disapproves. The system of honor and shame servesas a primary means of social control. Thus, knowing how to act toconform to the code of social behavior expected by one’s groupis essential to the maintenance of that community.

Inthe Bible, the noun “honor” is representedby kabod (from the verb “to be heavy”) in the OT, and bytimē (from the verb “to honor”) in the NT. Thereverse of honor is shame, which is represented by a varietyof Hebrew and Greek terms, such as boshet in the OT, and aischynēin the NT.

InIsrael, the Holiness Code (Lev. 17–26; cf. Num. 5:2–3;8:6–7, 14–15) is comparable to the code of honor andshame. As a covenant community, Israel has the obligation to abide bythe sanction imposed by God to attain honor (Deut. 4:6–8;26:18–19; Pss. 34:5, 8–9; 37:18–19; 127:5; cf.2Chron. 26:18; Pss. 8:5; 62:7; 84:11; Rom. 2:7–11).Israel is honored (Exod. 32:11–12; Deut. 32:26–27) beforethe nations when God’s honor is upheld (Exod. 7:5; 10:1–2;14:4, 17–18). Violation of covenantal stipulations—forexample, deceptions in trading (Deut. 25:16), acts of “abomination”(Lev. 18:17, 22–23, 26–29), idolatry (Deut. 31:20;32:15–17), and failure to perform duties prescribed in the law(Deut. 25:7–10)—results in disgrace before others (Exod.32:25) and God (Deut. 28:25–26, 37).

Thestatus of honor can be ascribed to an individual. A person is morehonorable who is the firstborn (Gen. 49:3), comes from an esteemedfamily (Ps. 45:9), or is married into a dignified family (Gen. 41:45;Ruth 4:5). This worth will last a lifetime unless the reputation ofthe family is compromised, either because of economics (Ruth 1:1–21)or violation of the codes of conduct, such as adultery and incest(Exod. 20:14; Lev. 18:20; 20:10–21; Deut. 5:18; 22:22; Prov.6:32–33), though not necessarily divorce (Deut. 24:1–4).Certain groups of people are honored because of special privilegegranted to them (Prov. 8:15–16; Dan. 2:21; Rom. 13:1–5)—forexample, priests (Exod. 28:2, 40; Ps. 110:4; Heb. 7:21), kings (Ps.2:7), sages (Prov. 3:35), Israel (Exod. 19:6; Deut. 7:6; 8:11–9:7;26:16–19), and the church (1Pet. 2:9).

Wealthsymbolizes one’s status and claims respect for its owners (Gen.12:10–20; 14:21–24; 1Kings 3:13; Prov. 3:16; 8:18;22:4; Ps. 49:16; Isa. 61:6, 12) but does not equate the state ofbeing poor with shame (cf. Ps. 12:5) unless it is a result of morallassitude (Prov. 13:18). Parts of the human body symbolize worth andvalue. Certain parts of the body are less honorable than others, andto expose them is to invite disgrace (2Sam. 10:4–5;1Chron. 19:4; Isa. 20:4; 1Cor. 12:23–24).

Thestatus of honor can also be achieved by an individual’s merits(cf. Rom. 2:7–11). Certain types of behavior are honorable—forexample, humility (Prov. 15:33; 18:12; 29:23), taking care of one’smaster (Prov. 27:18), honoring parents (Exod. 20:12; 21:15; 22:28;Prov. 19:26; Mal. 1:6; Matt. 15:4; Eph. 6:2), good service (Gen.45:13), military exploits (2Sam. 23:19–23; cf. 2Chron.32:21), almsgiving and justice (Prov. 21:21). One important aspect ofachieving honor is the pursuit of wisdom. The ways of wisdom arehonorable (Prov. 3:16–17; 4:8; 8:18), preserving a person fromdishonor (Prov. 3:16–17, 31–33, 35; 24:14), but the waysof folly, such as injustice (Prov. 1:22; 14:31) and dishonoringparents (Prov. 30:17; cf. Exod. 20:12; 21:15; Lev. 20:9; Deut.27:16), are a disgrace (Prov. 20:3; 26:1). The failure to performone’s duty (Gen. 40:1–3) or a defeat in battle (Isa.23:9; Lam. 1:8; Nah. 3:10) results in shame and, accordingly, loss ofsocial status (Isa. 16:14; 23:9; Jer. 46:12; Lam. 1:6, 8; Hos. 4:7).An ultimate form of disgrace is to be hanged for public viewing(Deut. 21:22–23; Esther 5:14; 7:7–10; Matt. 27:32–44;Mark 15:22–32; Luke 23:33–43; John 19:17–24; 1Cor.1:18–25). In a patriarchal society, the status of women isobtained through their sexual exclusiveness. Their chastity (Gen.38:24; Lev. 20:10; Deut. 22:13–21; cf. 2Sam. 13:13; Song8:8–9) and fertility (Gen. 16:2; 30:2; 1Sam. 1:3–8)become indicators of family and social worth.

In the OT, “pool” has three basic meanings: (1)areservoir for containing and conserving water for a community;typically rectangular or round, and if constructed, either hewn fromrock or created by damming a dry streambed; it may be fed by anaqueduct (2Sam. 2:13; 4:12; 1Kings 22:38; 2Kings3:16; 18:17; 20:20; Neh. 2:14; 3:15–16; Eccles. 2:6; Song 7:4;Isa. 7:3; 22:9, 11; 36:2; Nah. 2:8); (2)a naturally occurringpond, lake, lagoon, or marsh characterized by still or slow-movingwater and the presence of reeds and other water plants (Exod. 7:19;8:5; Pss. 107:35; 114:8; Isa. 14:23; 35:7; 41:18; 42:15); (3)aditch filled with water (2 Kings 3:16). Elsewhere in the OT, someEnglish translators use “pool” in rendering a metaphor orphrase that could be expressed another way (Deut. 8:7; Ps. 84:6; Song5:12; Jer. 41:12).

Inthe NT, “pool” occurs only in John’s Gospel, whereit refers to two constructed reservoirs or bathing places inJerusalem: the Pool of Bethesda (once associated with an asclepeion,or pagan healing temple) and the rock-cut Pool of Siloam. Jesusperformed healing miracles in both places (John 5:2, 7; 9:7, 11). Seealso Bethesda; King’s Pool; Siloam.

A collection of 150 poems. They are the hymnbook of the OTperiod, used in public worship. Psalms contains songs of differentlengths, types, and dates. The earliest psalm (Ps. 90) is attributedto Moses (mid-second millennium BC), while the content of Ps. 126 andPs. 137 points to the latest periods of the OT (mid-first millenniumBC). They continue to be used as a source of public worship andprivate devotion.

HistoricalBackground

Mostpsalms have a title. In the Hebrew text this title comprises thefirst verse, whereas English translations set it off before the firstverse. Titles vary. Many name an author (e.g., David [Ps. 3]; Asaph[Ps. 77]; sons of Korah [Ps. 42]), while others provide informationabout genre (e.g., Psalms of Ascent [Pss. 120–134]), tune(e.g., “Do Not Destroy” [Ps. 75]), use in worship (Ps.92), and a circ*mstance that led to composition (Ps. 51). Informationin the title gives hints concerning how psalms were written andbrought into a final collection.

Composition

Asmentioned, the titles of the psalms often give indications ofauthorship and occasionally name the circ*mstance that led to thewriting of the psalm. A good example is Ps. 51, where the titlestates, “For the director of music. A psalm of David. When theprophet Nathan came to him after David had committed adultery withBathsheba.” The title connects the psalm with the eventsrecorded in 2Sam. 11–12 and suggests that David wrote thesong in response to his sin and Nathan’s confrontation.

Althoughonly a handful of the psalms have such a historical title, it islikely that most psalms were composed in response to some specificcirc*mstance that encouraged the author to write. Interestingly,though, the psalmists do not speak about the specific circ*mstance inthe psalm itself. Psalm 51, for instance, fits perfectly with thesituation that the title describes in that it expresses guilt towardGod and asks for forgiveness, but nowhere does it speak specificallyabout adultery. The psalmists do this intentionally because they arewriting the song not as a memorial to an event, but rather as aprayer that others who have had similar though not identicalexperiences can use after them. Thus, Ps. 51 has been used as a modelprayer for many penitents, whether they have sinned like David or inanother way.

Mostmodern hymns have a similar background. John Newton, for instance,was inspired to write “Amazing Grace” because of awe thathe felt at his conversion to Christianity from the evil of being aslave trader. However, when he wrote it, he wanted others to sing itas reflecting not on his conversion but on their own.

Collection

Thepsalms were composed over a thousand-year period. Thus, it appearsthat the book of Psalms was a growing collection until it came to aclose at an unknown time between the writing of the two Testaments.

In1Chron. 16:7–36 we may get a glimpse of how the processworked. The text describes David turning a musical composition overto the Levitical musician Asaph and his associates. It is likely thatthe priests kept an official copy of the book of Psalms in the holyplace (the temple while it stood). The psalms, after all, were thehymns of ancient Israel. Their primary function was as a corporatebook of prayer, though certainly they could be used in privatedevotions (note Hannah’s prayer in 1Sam. 2:1–10 andits relationship to Ps. 113).

Organizationand Structure

Thepsalms have no obvious organization that explains the location of allthe psalms. They are not organized in terms of genre, authorship,time of composition, or length. There is only one statement aboutorganization, found in Ps. 72:20: “This concludes the prayersof David son of Jesse.” In the light of this comment, it issurprising that a number of Davidic psalms appear in subsequentsections (Pss. 101; 103; 108–110; 122; 124; 131; 133; 138–145).The best explanation is that at one point Ps. 72 concluded theDavidic psalms, but there was a reorganization before the canonicalorder was permanently closed.

Anumber of contemporary theories try to find some deep structure tothe book, but it is best to refrain from speculation in regard to theoverall structure. Nonetheless, a few structural characteristics areobvious. First, the division of Psalms into five books seems toreflect the fivefold division of the Pentateuch:

I.Book 1 (Pss. 1–41)

II.Book 2 (Pss. 42–72)

III.Book 3 (Pss. 73–89)

IV.Book 4 (Pss. 90–106)

V.Book 5 (Pss. 107–150)

Eachbook ends with a doxology. Such an intentional association with thePentateuch would lend support to the Psalter’s claim toauthority. Although these are prayers to God, they are also God’sword.

Second,within the Psalter there are subcollections. That is, there arepsalms that came into the book not individually but as a group. Thebest-known such group are the Psalms of Ascent (Pss. 120–134),probably so named because worshipers sang them while going up(ascending) to the Temple Mount during one of the annual religiousfestivals in Jerusalem.

Third,it appears that psalms are intentionally placed at the beginning andat the end of the book to serve as an introduction and a conclusion.Psalms 1–2 serve as an introduction that alerts the reader tothe twin important themes of law and messiah. Psalm 1 pronounces ablessing on those who love God’s law. The psalms, after all,are an intimate and personal conversation with God. One must be onthe side of the godly to enter such a holy textual space, just as onemust be godly to enter the precincts of the temple. After the readerenters, Psalm 2 provides an encounter with God and his anointed one(messiah). At the end of the book, the last five psalms (Pss.146–150) constitute a tremendous doxology of praise.

Thisleads to the final observation on structure. Psalms of lamentpredominate at the beginning of the book, but they give way to hymnsof praise toward the end. It is almost as if one enters the Psaltermourning and leaves it praising. Indeed, the Psalter brings thereader into contact with God and thus transforms the reader fromsadness to joy.

LiteraryConsiderations

Genre.The individual psalms may be identified as songs, prayers, or poems.Specifically, they are lyric poems (expressing the emotions of thepoet), often addressed to God, and set to musical accompaniment.Although the categories overlap, seven different types of psalms canbe recognized, with the first three being by far the most common.

• Lament.The largest single group of psalms are the laments, characterized bythe expression of unhappy emotions: sadness, disappointment, anger,worry. The lamenters call on God to save them, even while at timescomplaining about God’s actions toward them (Ps. 42:9–10).Some laments contain petitions for forgiveness (Ps. 51), while othersassert innocence of any wrongdoing (Ps. 26). A few laments evencontain curses directed toward the enemies who are trying to harm thepsalmist (Ps. 69:19–28). Most laments end by praising God orreaffirming confidence in God (Ps. 130:7–8). Usually the reasonfor the change from mourning to rejoicing is not given, but Ps. 77pinpoints the reason as the memory of God’s great salvationevents in the past (vv. 10, 16–20). One psalm, Ps. 88, lamentsbut never makes the turn, remaining in the pit of despair. Yet evenhere we have a glimmer of hope in that the one who laments is stillspeaking to God.

• Thanksgiving.When God answers a lament, the response is thanksgiving. Psalms ofthanksgiving are very similar to hymns (see below), but they cite anearlier problem that God has addressed. Psalm 30 praises God forrestoring the psalmist’s good fortune and health after hesuffered due to his earlier arrogance that led him to forget God (vv.6–7).

• Hymn.Hymns are psalms of unalloyed praise directed toward God. Thepsalmists often call for others to join their worship of God (Ps.100).

• Remembrance.While many psalms evoke memories of God’s actions in the past(as the lament in Ps. 77 recalls the exodus), certain psalms focus onrehearsing the actions of God in the past. Psalm 136 is one of themost memorable examples. As a liturgical psalm, it recites a divineaction (“[God] swept Pharaoh and his army into the Red Sea”[v.15]) followed by a congregational response (“His loveendures forever”).

• Confidence.These psalms are defined by their mood of quiet trust in God even inthe midst of trouble. They often present a reassuring image of God.The picture of God as a shepherd in Ps. 23 or as a mother in Ps. 131are good examples.

• Wisdom.Some psalms meditate on the law (Pss. 1; 119) or have interestssimilar to those of wisdom literature, such as Job, Proverbs, andEcclesiastes (Pss. 49; 73).

• Kingship.A number of psalms praise God as king (Ps. 47) or the human king ashis agent (Pss. 20–21) or both (Ps.2).

Style.The psalms are poems, and so their style is characterized by the useof parallelism and figurative language. Poetry is also notable forits short lines. A poet packs a lot of meaning into very few words.So it is important to slow down and reflect on a psalm in order toderive its maximum effect. Besides brevity of expression,parallelism, and figurative language, poets create interest by usingother literary tools. The psalmists use these poetic devices not onlyto inform their readers’ intellect but also to stimulate theirimagination and arouse their emotions. (See also Acrostic; Imagery;Poetry.)

TheologicalMessage

Althoughthe psalms are not theological essays, readers can learn about Godand their relationship with God from these poems. The book of Psalmsis a bit like a portrait gallery of God, using images to describe whohe is and the nature of our relationship with him. Some examplesinclude God as shepherd (Ps. 23), king (Ps. 47), warrior (Ps. 98),and mother (Ps. 131), and the list could be greatly expanded. Eachone of these picture images casts light on the nature of God and alsothe nature of our relationship with God. After all, theaforementioned psalms explicitly or implicitly describe God’speople as sheep, subjects, soldiers, and children.

Connectionto the New Testament and Today

Jesushimself draws attention to Psalms as a book that anticipated hiscoming suffering and glorification (Luke 24:25–27, 44). TheGospels recognized that Jesus’ zeal for God was well expressedby Ps. 69:9 (John 2:17). When at the apex of his suffering on thecross, Jesus uttered the words found in Ps. 22:1 (Matt. 27:46). TheNT writers also saw that Jesus was the fulfillment of the covenantthat promised that a son of David would have an everlasting throne(2Sam. 7:16). Accordingly, the royal psalms (e.g., Pss. 2; 110)often were applied to Jesus, who is the Messiah (the Christ, “theanointed one”).

Todaywe read Psalms not only as an ancient witness to the coming work ofChrist but also, as John Calvin put it, as a mirror of our souls. Thepsalms were written for worshipers who came after them with similarthough not identical joys and problems. The psalms should becomemodels of our prayers.

A small, predominantly brown, seed-eating bird that adaptswell to towns. Species found in Israel include the house sparrow, theSpanish sparrow, and the Dead Sea sparrow. The Greek word strouthionmay refer specifically to sparrows (Matt. 10:29, 31; Luke 12:6; Tob.2:10), but the Hebrew word tsippor(translated as “sparrow” by the NIV in Ps. 84:3; Prov.26:2) simply means “bird” and covers a wide range ofspecies (see Gen. 7:14; Ezek. 39:4).

Rituallyclean small birds were snared or taken from the nest to be used forsacrifice and food, especially by the poor (e.g., Lev. 14:4–7;Deut. 14:11; 22:6–7; Neh. 5:18; Eccles. 9:12). In poetry, theyare mentioned in connection with their nests (e.g., Pss. 84:3;104:17; Prov. 27:8), flight (Prov. 26:2), and song (Eccles. 12:4).Since many are normally gregarious and stay close to the nest, asolitary or straying small bird is a striking image (Ps. 102:7; Prov.27:8).

Inthe first century AD a sparrow cost 1⁄32 or even 1⁄40 ofa day’s wage. Jesus contrasts the low market price of sparrowswith God’s providential care for each one of them, therebyassuring us that we are of far greater value to our Father (Matt.10:29–31; Luke 12:6–7).

The Bible depicts war and warlike acts throughout. The armsare both offensive and defensive in nature. The most common types ofoffensive weapons are swords, axes, spears, bows and arrows, slings,and stones. Defensive weapons include the shield and the helmet. Anarmy’s arsenal was usually kept in a storehouse called anarmory (1 Kings 10:17; Isa. 22:8; Neh. 3:19).

Arms

Sword.In the OT, the word “sword” (khereb) appears for thefirst time in Gen. 3:24 after Adam and Eve have been evicted from thegarden of Eden. A flaming sword was placed there “to guard theway to the tree of life.” Thus, the first use of the sword isdefensive. Later in Genesis, Jacob’s sons use swords to avengethe rape of their sister Dinah (Gen. 34:25–26). In most casesthe word describes the weapon of choice for most of antiquity. Swordswere manufactured of iron (1 Sam. 13:19; Joel 3:10). Some wereshort and easy to maneuver (Judg. 3:16), while others were long andheavy (1 Sam. 21:9). They could be single- or double-edged, andthey were worn in a sheath or scabbard (1 Sam. 17:51; 2 Sam.20:8). The sword was also supported by a girdle made of leatherstudded with nails (1 Sam. 18:4; 2 Sam. 20:8). Sometimes,the sword was used figuratively to speak of God’s judgment(Lev. 26:6; Isa. 1:20; Jer. 47:6; 50:35–37; Ezek. 21:9, 28;Hos. 11:6). In the NT, the most common word describing a sword is theGreek machaira, which is used to describe the weapons wielded by themob that came to arrest Jesus (Matt. 26:47, 55; Mark 14:48), as wellas the weapon used by Peter to cut off Malchus’s ear (John18:10). Another Greek word translated “sword” isrhomphaia, which describes a longer sword, generally worn over one’sshoulder (Rev. 1:16; 6:8; 19:21). The word “sword” isalso used figuratively in the NT. The word of God is designated as“the sword of the Spirit” (Eph. 6:17) and as a“double-edged sword” (Heb. 4:12).

Spear.Four main words in the Bible are translated as “spear” or“javelin.” The Hebrew word romakh is translated “spear”or “javelin,” and it appears fifteen times in the OT. Thespear was made of iron (Joel 3:10), and those who fell prey to itnever survived its penetration (Num. 25:7; 1 Kings 18:28). Theother Hebrew word used for the spear is khanit, which appears aboutfifty times in the OT. It is used to describe Goliath’s spearwhen he fought David (1 Sam. 17:7), Saul’s spear when hehurled it at David (1 Sam. 18:10–11), and theAssyrian-made “glittering” spear (Nah. 3:3). The thirdword is khidon, which appears about ten times in the OT. It describesa weapon in the arsenals of Joshua (Josh. 8:18, 26), Goliath (1 Sam.17:6), and the Babylonians (Jer. 6:23). In the NT, the word “spear”(Gk. longchē) occurs only once, referring to the weapon used topierce Jesus’ side at his crucifixion (John 19:34).

Bowand arrow.The bow and arrow was an important offensive weapon in Israel and thesurrounding cultures. In the Bible, bow and arrow, either incombination or individually, appear in both a literal (2 Kings9:24; Isa. 37:33) and a figurative sense (Pss. 11:2; 64:7; Isa. 49:2;Lam. 3:12; Zech. 9:13). There is extrabiblical evidence suggestingthat the Egyptians and the Syrians also used the bow and arrow aspart of their military arsenal.

Sling.Primitive but effective, the sling was used not only in Israel butalso in Egypt and Babylon. Easy to manufacture, it used stones asammunition; thus it was the weapon of choice for those lacking rawmaterial to build weapons made of metal. Besides David’s use ofthe sling in his encounter with Goliath (1 Sam. 17:40), men fromthe tribe of Benjamin used the sling with remarkable accuracy (Judg.20:16).

Ax.Besides its primary role for cutting down trees (Deut. 19:5; Judg.9:48; Jer. 10:3), the ax probably was used in war as well. (See alsoAx, Ax Head.)

Armor

Shield.The shield is one of the most ancient defense weapons. Two Hebrewwords are used to depict a shield. The magen appears for the firsttime in Gen. 15:1, where it is used figuratively to speak of God’sprotection of Abraham. It is used in the same manner one other time,in Deut. 33:29. It is frequently used as a figure of speech by thepsalmists to denote the same idea of divine protection (Pss. 3:3;7:10; 18:2, 30; 28:7; 33:20; 59:11; 84:9, 11; 115:9–11;119:114; 144:2). When used literally, the term refers to a shieldmade of wood and sometimes overlaid with leather. Solomon used goldto manufacture shields (1 Kings 10:17), while Rehoboammanufactured them of bronze (1 Kings 14:27). This type of shieldwas used as a defensive weapon by the Israelites throughout theirhistory (Judg. 5:8; 1 Chron. 5:18; 2 Chron. 9:16; 14:8;17:17; 23:9; Neh. 4:16). It was also used by the Syrians (Isa. 22:6),Assyrians (Isa. 37:33), Egyptians (Jer. 46:3), and Persians (Ezek.27:10). The other Hebrew term translated “shield” istsinnah. This was larger than the magen and was meant to cover thefighter’s entire body. It was the type of shield carried byGoliath’s shield bearer (1 Sam. 17:7, 41), manufactured byKing Solomon (1 Kings 10:16), used by the Gadites who joinedDavid while fleeing from Saul (1 Chron. 12:8), and used byIsrael’s army during the reigns of Rehoboam (2 Chron.11:12) and Asa (2 Chron. 14:8). The Greek word thyreos is theLXX rendering of the Hebrew tsinnah, and it appears only once in theNT. Paul uses the word figuratively when speaking about the “shieldof faith” (Eph. 6:16).

Helmet.The helmet had the obvious defensive purpose of protecting acombatant’s head. It was made of leather or light metal, suchas bronze (1 Sam. 17:5, 38). In both Testaments, salvation isspoken of figuratively as a “helmet” (Isa. 59:17; Eph.6:17; 1 Thess. 5:8).

Coatof mail.Body armor was used for the protection of the warrior not only inIsrael but also in other ancient Near Eastern nations. The Hebrewterm shiryon is variously translated as “coat of mail”(ESV, RSV, NRSV), “coat of scale armor” (NIV), or“habergeon” (KJV). Goliath wore this type of body armor(1 Sam. 17:5, 38), and his was manufactured of bronze. Despitewearing a shiryon, Israel’s king Ahab was fatally wounded inbattle (1 Kings 22:34). In an attempt to strengthen Judah’smilitary power, King Uzziah also provided coats of mail for his army(2 Chron. 26:14). It was also used during postexilic times,Nehemiah’s workers having benefited from its protection (Neh.4:16). Shiryon (Gk. thorax) is used figuratively to speak of a“breastplate” of righteousness and of love (Isa. 59:17;Eph. 6:14; 1 Thess. 5:8).

The Bible depicts war and warlike acts throughout. The armsare both offensive and defensive in nature. The most common types ofoffensive weapons are swords, axes, spears, bows and arrows, slings,and stones. Defensive weapons include the shield and the helmet. Anarmy’s arsenal was usually kept in a storehouse called anarmory (1 Kings 10:17; Isa. 22:8; Neh. 3:19).

Arms

Sword.In the OT, the word “sword” (khereb) appears for thefirst time in Gen. 3:24 after Adam and Eve have been evicted from thegarden of Eden. A flaming sword was placed there “to guard theway to the tree of life.” Thus, the first use of the sword isdefensive. Later in Genesis, Jacob’s sons use swords to avengethe rape of their sister Dinah (Gen. 34:25–26). In most casesthe word describes the weapon of choice for most of antiquity. Swordswere manufactured of iron (1 Sam. 13:19; Joel 3:10). Some wereshort and easy to maneuver (Judg. 3:16), while others were long andheavy (1 Sam. 21:9). They could be single- or double-edged, andthey were worn in a sheath or scabbard (1 Sam. 17:51; 2 Sam.20:8). The sword was also supported by a girdle made of leatherstudded with nails (1 Sam. 18:4; 2 Sam. 20:8). Sometimes,the sword was used figuratively to speak of God’s judgment(Lev. 26:6; Isa. 1:20; Jer. 47:6; 50:35–37; Ezek. 21:9, 28;Hos. 11:6). In the NT, the most common word describing a sword is theGreek machaira, which is used to describe the weapons wielded by themob that came to arrest Jesus (Matt. 26:47, 55; Mark 14:48), as wellas the weapon used by Peter to cut off Malchus’s ear (John18:10). Another Greek word translated “sword” isrhomphaia, which describes a longer sword, generally worn over one’sshoulder (Rev. 1:16; 6:8; 19:21). The word “sword” isalso used figuratively in the NT. The word of God is designated as“the sword of the Spirit” (Eph. 6:17) and as a“double-edged sword” (Heb. 4:12).

Spear.Four main words in the Bible are translated as “spear” or“javelin.” The Hebrew word romakh is translated “spear”or “javelin,” and it appears fifteen times in the OT. Thespear was made of iron (Joel 3:10), and those who fell prey to itnever survived its penetration (Num. 25:7; 1 Kings 18:28). Theother Hebrew word used for the spear is khanit, which appears aboutfifty times in the OT. It is used to describe Goliath’s spearwhen he fought David (1 Sam. 17:7), Saul’s spear when hehurled it at David (1 Sam. 18:10–11), and theAssyrian-made “glittering” spear (Nah. 3:3). The thirdword is khidon, which appears about ten times in the OT. It describesa weapon in the arsenals of Joshua (Josh. 8:18, 26), Goliath (1 Sam.17:6), and the Babylonians (Jer. 6:23). In the NT, the word “spear”(Gk. longchē) occurs only once, referring to the weapon used topierce Jesus’ side at his crucifixion (John 19:34).

Bowand arrow.The bow and arrow was an important offensive weapon in Israel and thesurrounding cultures. In the Bible, bow and arrow, either incombination or individually, appear in both a literal (2 Kings9:24; Isa. 37:33) and a figurative sense (Pss. 11:2; 64:7; Isa. 49:2;Lam. 3:12; Zech. 9:13). There is extrabiblical evidence suggestingthat the Egyptians and the Syrians also used the bow and arrow aspart of their military arsenal.

Sling.Primitive but effective, the sling was used not only in Israel butalso in Egypt and Babylon. Easy to manufacture, it used stones asammunition; thus it was the weapon of choice for those lacking rawmaterial to build weapons made of metal. Besides David’s use ofthe sling in his encounter with Goliath (1 Sam. 17:40), men fromthe tribe of Benjamin used the sling with remarkable accuracy (Judg.20:16).

Ax.Besides its primary role for cutting down trees (Deut. 19:5; Judg.9:48; Jer. 10:3), the ax probably was used in war as well. (See alsoAx, Ax Head.)

Armor

Shield.The shield is one of the most ancient defense weapons. Two Hebrewwords are used to depict a shield. The magen appears for the firsttime in Gen. 15:1, where it is used figuratively to speak of God’sprotection of Abraham. It is used in the same manner one other time,in Deut. 33:29. It is frequently used as a figure of speech by thepsalmists to denote the same idea of divine protection (Pss. 3:3;7:10; 18:2, 30; 28:7; 33:20; 59:11; 84:9, 11; 115:9–11;119:114; 144:2). When used literally, the term refers to a shieldmade of wood and sometimes overlaid with leather. Solomon used goldto manufacture shields (1 Kings 10:17), while Rehoboammanufactured them of bronze (1 Kings 14:27). This type of shieldwas used as a defensive weapon by the Israelites throughout theirhistory (Judg. 5:8; 1 Chron. 5:18; 2 Chron. 9:16; 14:8;17:17; 23:9; Neh. 4:16). It was also used by the Syrians (Isa. 22:6),Assyrians (Isa. 37:33), Egyptians (Jer. 46:3), and Persians (Ezek.27:10). The other Hebrew term translated “shield” istsinnah. This was larger than the magen and was meant to cover thefighter’s entire body. It was the type of shield carried byGoliath’s shield bearer (1 Sam. 17:7, 41), manufactured byKing Solomon (1 Kings 10:16), used by the Gadites who joinedDavid while fleeing from Saul (1 Chron. 12:8), and used byIsrael’s army during the reigns of Rehoboam (2 Chron.11:12) and Asa (2 Chron. 14:8). The Greek word thyreos is theLXX rendering of the Hebrew tsinnah, and it appears only once in theNT. Paul uses the word figuratively when speaking about the “shieldof faith” (Eph. 6:16).

Helmet.The helmet had the obvious defensive purpose of protecting acombatant’s head. It was made of leather or light metal, suchas bronze (1 Sam. 17:5, 38). In both Testaments, salvation isspoken of figuratively as a “helmet” (Isa. 59:17; Eph.6:17; 1 Thess. 5:8).

Coatof mail.Body armor was used for the protection of the warrior not only inIsrael but also in other ancient Near Eastern nations. The Hebrewterm shiryon is variously translated as “coat of mail”(ESV, RSV, NRSV), “coat of scale armor” (NIV), or“habergeon” (KJV). Goliath wore this type of body armor(1 Sam. 17:5, 38), and his was manufactured of bronze. Despitewearing a shiryon, Israel’s king Ahab was fatally wounded inbattle (1 Kings 22:34). In an attempt to strengthen Judah’smilitary power, King Uzziah also provided coats of mail for his army(2 Chron. 26:14). It was also used during postexilic times,Nehemiah’s workers having benefited from its protection (Neh.4:16). Shiryon (Gk. thorax) is used figuratively to speak of a“breastplate” of righteousness and of love (Isa. 59:17;Eph. 6:14; 1 Thess. 5:8).

A collection of 150 poems. They are the hymnbook of the OTperiod, used in public worship. Psalms contains songs of differentlengths, types, and dates. The earliest psalm (Ps. 90) is attributedto Moses (mid-second millennium BC), while the content of Ps. 126 andPs. 137 points to the latest periods of the OT (mid-first millenniumBC). They continue to be used as a source of public worship andprivate devotion.

HistoricalBackground

Mostpsalms have a title. In the Hebrew text this title comprises thefirst verse, whereas English translations set it off before the firstverse. Titles vary. Many name an author (e.g., David [Ps. 3]; Asaph[Ps. 77]; sons of Korah [Ps. 42]), while others provide informationabout genre (e.g., Psalms of Ascent [Pss. 120–134]), tune(e.g., “Do Not Destroy” [Ps. 75]), use in worship (Ps.92), and a circ*mstance that led to composition (Ps. 51). Informationin the title gives hints concerning how psalms were written andbrought into a final collection.

Composition

Asmentioned, the titles of the psalms often give indications ofauthorship and occasionally name the circ*mstance that led to thewriting of the psalm. A good example is Ps. 51, where the titlestates, “For the director of music. A psalm of David. When theprophet Nathan came to him after David had committed adultery withBathsheba.” The title connects the psalm with the eventsrecorded in 2Sam. 11–12 and suggests that David wrote thesong in response to his sin and Nathan’s confrontation.

Althoughonly a handful of the psalms have such a historical title, it islikely that most psalms were composed in response to some specificcirc*mstance that encouraged the author to write. Interestingly,though, the psalmists do not speak about the specific circ*mstance inthe psalm itself. Psalm 51, for instance, fits perfectly with thesituation that the title describes in that it expresses guilt towardGod and asks for forgiveness, but nowhere does it speak specificallyabout adultery. The psalmists do this intentionally because they arewriting the song not as a memorial to an event, but rather as aprayer that others who have had similar though not identicalexperiences can use after them. Thus, Ps. 51 has been used as a modelprayer for many penitents, whether they have sinned like David or inanother way.

Mostmodern hymns have a similar background. John Newton, for instance,was inspired to write “Amazing Grace” because of awe thathe felt at his conversion to Christianity from the evil of being aslave trader. However, when he wrote it, he wanted others to sing itas reflecting not on his conversion but on their own.

Collection

Thepsalms were composed over a thousand-year period. Thus, it appearsthat the book of Psalms was a growing collection until it came to aclose at an unknown time between the writing of the two Testaments.

In1Chron. 16:7–36 we may get a glimpse of how the processworked. The text describes David turning a musical composition overto the Levitical musician Asaph and his associates. It is likely thatthe priests kept an official copy of the book of Psalms in the holyplace (the temple while it stood). The psalms, after all, were thehymns of ancient Israel. Their primary function was as a corporatebook of prayer, though certainly they could be used in privatedevotions (note Hannah’s prayer in 1Sam. 2:1–10 andits relationship to Ps. 113).

Organizationand Structure

Thepsalms have no obvious organization that explains the location of allthe psalms. They are not organized in terms of genre, authorship,time of composition, or length. There is only one statement aboutorganization, found in Ps. 72:20: “This concludes the prayersof David son of Jesse.” In the light of this comment, it issurprising that a number of Davidic psalms appear in subsequentsections (Pss. 101; 103; 108–110; 122; 124; 131; 133; 138–145).The best explanation is that at one point Ps. 72 concluded theDavidic psalms, but there was a reorganization before the canonicalorder was permanently closed.

Anumber of contemporary theories try to find some deep structure tothe book, but it is best to refrain from speculation in regard to theoverall structure. Nonetheless, a few structural characteristics areobvious. First, the division of Psalms into five books seems toreflect the fivefold division of the Pentateuch:

I.Book 1 (Pss. 1–41)

II.Book 2 (Pss. 42–72)

III.Book 3 (Pss. 73–89)

IV.Book 4 (Pss. 90–106)

V.Book 5 (Pss. 107–150)

Eachbook ends with a doxology. Such an intentional association with thePentateuch would lend support to the Psalter’s claim toauthority. Although these are prayers to God, they are also God’sword.

Second,within the Psalter there are subcollections. That is, there arepsalms that came into the book not individually but as a group. Thebest-known such group are the Psalms of Ascent (Pss. 120–134),probably so named because worshipers sang them while going up(ascending) to the Temple Mount during one of the annual religiousfestivals in Jerusalem.

Third,it appears that psalms are intentionally placed at the beginning andat the end of the book to serve as an introduction and a conclusion.Psalms 1–2 serve as an introduction that alerts the reader tothe twin important themes of law and messiah. Psalm 1 pronounces ablessing on those who love God’s law. The psalms, after all,are an intimate and personal conversation with God. One must be onthe side of the godly to enter such a holy textual space, just as onemust be godly to enter the precincts of the temple. After the readerenters, Psalm 2 provides an encounter with God and his anointed one(messiah). At the end of the book, the last five psalms (Pss.146–150) constitute a tremendous doxology of praise.

Thisleads to the final observation on structure. Psalms of lamentpredominate at the beginning of the book, but they give way to hymnsof praise toward the end. It is almost as if one enters the Psaltermourning and leaves it praising. Indeed, the Psalter brings thereader into contact with God and thus transforms the reader fromsadness to joy.

LiteraryConsiderations

Genre.The individual psalms may be identified as songs, prayers, or poems.Specifically, they are lyric poems (expressing the emotions of thepoet), often addressed to God, and set to musical accompaniment.Although the categories overlap, seven different types of psalms canbe recognized, with the first three being by far the most common.

• Lament.The largest single group of psalms are the laments, characterized bythe expression of unhappy emotions: sadness, disappointment, anger,worry. The lamenters call on God to save them, even while at timescomplaining about God’s actions toward them (Ps. 42:9–10).Some laments contain petitions for forgiveness (Ps. 51), while othersassert innocence of any wrongdoing (Ps. 26). A few laments evencontain curses directed toward the enemies who are trying to harm thepsalmist (Ps. 69:19–28). Most laments end by praising God orreaffirming confidence in God (Ps. 130:7–8). Usually the reasonfor the change from mourning to rejoicing is not given, but Ps. 77pinpoints the reason as the memory of God’s great salvationevents in the past (vv. 10, 16–20). One psalm, Ps. 88, lamentsbut never makes the turn, remaining in the pit of despair. Yet evenhere we have a glimmer of hope in that the one who laments is stillspeaking to God.

• Thanksgiving.When God answers a lament, the response is thanksgiving. Psalms ofthanksgiving are very similar to hymns (see below), but they cite anearlier problem that God has addressed. Psalm 30 praises God forrestoring the psalmist’s good fortune and health after hesuffered due to his earlier arrogance that led him to forget God (vv.6–7).

• Hymn.Hymns are psalms of unalloyed praise directed toward God. Thepsalmists often call for others to join their worship of God (Ps.100).

• Remembrance.While many psalms evoke memories of God’s actions in the past(as the lament in Ps. 77 recalls the exodus), certain psalms focus onrehearsing the actions of God in the past. Psalm 136 is one of themost memorable examples. As a liturgical psalm, it recites a divineaction (“[God] swept Pharaoh and his army into the Red Sea”[v.15]) followed by a congregational response (“His loveendures forever”).

• Confidence.These psalms are defined by their mood of quiet trust in God even inthe midst of trouble. They often present a reassuring image of God.The picture of God as a shepherd in Ps. 23 or as a mother in Ps. 131are good examples.

• Wisdom.Some psalms meditate on the law (Pss. 1; 119) or have interestssimilar to those of wisdom literature, such as Job, Proverbs, andEcclesiastes (Pss. 49; 73).

• Kingship.A number of psalms praise God as king (Ps. 47) or the human king ashis agent (Pss. 20–21) or both (Ps.2).

Style.The psalms are poems, and so their style is characterized by the useof parallelism and figurative language. Poetry is also notable forits short lines. A poet packs a lot of meaning into very few words.So it is important to slow down and reflect on a psalm in order toderive its maximum effect. Besides brevity of expression,parallelism, and figurative language, poets create interest by usingother literary tools. The psalmists use these poetic devices not onlyto inform their readers’ intellect but also to stimulate theirimagination and arouse their emotions. (See also Acrostic; Imagery;Poetry.)

TheologicalMessage

Althoughthe psalms are not theological essays, readers can learn about Godand their relationship with God from these poems. The book of Psalmsis a bit like a portrait gallery of God, using images to describe whohe is and the nature of our relationship with him. Some examplesinclude God as shepherd (Ps. 23), king (Ps. 47), warrior (Ps. 98),and mother (Ps. 131), and the list could be greatly expanded. Eachone of these picture images casts light on the nature of God and alsothe nature of our relationship with God. After all, theaforementioned psalms explicitly or implicitly describe God’speople as sheep, subjects, soldiers, and children.

Connectionto the New Testament and Today

Jesushimself draws attention to Psalms as a book that anticipated hiscoming suffering and glorification (Luke 24:25–27, 44). TheGospels recognized that Jesus’ zeal for God was well expressedby Ps. 69:9 (John 2:17). When at the apex of his suffering on thecross, Jesus uttered the words found in Ps. 22:1 (Matt. 27:46). TheNT writers also saw that Jesus was the fulfillment of the covenantthat promised that a son of David would have an everlasting throne(2Sam. 7:16). Accordingly, the royal psalms (e.g., Pss. 2; 110)often were applied to Jesus, who is the Messiah (the Christ, “theanointed one”).

Todaywe read Psalms not only as an ancient witness to the coming work ofChrist but also, as John Calvin put it, as a mirror of our souls. Thepsalms were written for worshipers who came after them with similarthough not identical joys and problems. The psalms should becomemodels of our prayers.

Altars were places of sacrifice and worship constructed ofvarious materials. They could be either temporary or permanent. Somealtars were in the open air; others were set apart in a holy place.They could symbolize either God’s presense and protection orfalse worship that would lead to God’s judgment.

OldTestament

Noahand the patriarchs. Thefirst reference in the Bible is to an altar built by Noah after theflood (Gen. 8:20). This action suggests the sanctuary character ofthe mountain on which the ark landed, so that theologically the ark’sresting place was a (partial) return to Eden. The purpose of theextra clean animals loaded onto the ark was revealed (cf. 7:2–3).They were offered up as “burnt offerings,” symbolizingself-dedication to God at this point of new beginning for the humanrace.

Abrambuilt altars “to the Lord” at places where God appearedand spoke to him (Gen. 12:7) and where he encamped (12:8; 13:3–4,18). No sacrifice is explicitly mentioned in association with thesealtars. Thus, they may have had the character of monuments ormemorials of significant events. In association with Abram’saltars, he is said to have “called on the name of the Lord”(12:8)—that is, to pray. The elaborate cultic proceduresassociated with later Israelite altars (e.g., the mediation ofpriests) were absent in the patriarchal period. Succeedinggenerations followed the same practices: Isaac (26:25) and Jacob(33:20; 34:1, 3, 7). God’s test of Abraham involved the demandthat he sacrifice his son Isaac as a burnt offering. In obedience,Abraham built an altar for this purpose, but through God’sintervention a reprieve was granted, and a ram was substituted (22:9,13). Moses erected an altar after the defeat of Amalek at Rephidim,to commemorate this God-given victory (Exod. 17:15–16).

Mosesand the tabernacle.In the context of making the covenant with Israel at Sinai, God gaveMoses instructions on how to construct an altar (Exod. 20:24–26;cf. Josh. 8:31). It could be “an altar of earth” (ofsun-dried mud-brick construction?) or else made of loose naturalstones. The Israelites were expressly forbidden to use hewn stones,perhaps for fear of an idolatrous image being carved (making thisprohibition an application of Exod. 20:4; cf. Deut. 27:5–6).Even if the altar was large, it was not to be supplied with steps forthe priest to ascend, lest his nakedness be shown to God. Therequirement that priests wear undergarments reflects the same concern(Exod. 28:42–43). An altar made of twelve stones, the numberrepresenting the number of the tribes of Israel, was built by Mosesfor the covenant-making ceremony (Exod. 24:4), in which half theblood of the sacrifice was sprinkled on the altar (representing God?)and the other half on the people, the action symbolizing the covenantbond created (24:6–8).

Forthe tabernacle, a portable “altar of burnt offering” wasmade (Exod. 27:1–8; 38:1–7). It had wooden framessheathed in bronze and featured a horn at each corner. There was aledge around the altar halfway up its sides, from which was hungbronze grating, and it had four bronze rings into which poles wereslipped for transport. As part of the cultic ritual, blood wassmeared on the horns (29:12). This altar stood in the open air in thecourtyard of the tabernacle, near the entrance to the tabernacle.Included among the tabernacle furnishings was a smaller “altarof incense,” with molding around the top rim (30:1–10;37:25–28). This altar was, however, overlaid with gold, for itstood closer to God’s ritual presence, inside the tabernacle,“in front of the curtain that shields the Ark of the Covenantlaw,” the curtain that separated the most holy place from theholy place. The high priest placed fragrant incense on this altarevery morning and evening. The fact that this was a daily procedureand the description of the positioning of the tabernacle furnishingsin Exod. 40:26–28 (mentioning the altar of incense afterspeaking about the lampstand) might be taken as implying that theincense altar was in the holy place, but 1 Kings 6:22 and Heb.9:4 suggest that it was actually in the most holy place, near theark.

God,through Moses, instructed the people that on entering the PromisedLand they were to destroy all Canaanite altars along with the otherparaphernalia of their pagan worship (Deut. 7:5; 12:3). Bronze Agealtars discovered at Megiddo include horned limestone incense altarsand a large circular altar mounted by a flight of steps. In Josh. 22the crisis caused by the building of “an imposing altar”by the Transjordanian tribes was averted when these tribes explainedto the rest of the Israelites that it was intended as a replica ofthe altar outside the tabernacle and not for the offering ofsacrifices. The worship of all Israel at the one sanctuary bothexpressed and protected the religious unity and purity of the nationat this vital early stage of occupation of the land. In laternarratives, however, Gideon (Judg. 6), Samuel (1 Sam. 7:17),Saul (1 Sam. 14:35), and David (2 Sam. 24) are said tobuild altars for sacrifice and to have done so with impunity, and infact with the apparent approval of the biblical author. Theestablished custom of seeking sanctuary from threat of death in thenation’s shrine is reflected in 1 Kings 1:50–53;2:28–35, where Adonijah and Joab are described as “clingingto the horns of the altar.”

Solomon’stemple and rival worship centers.In the temple built by Solomon, the altar of incense that belonged tothe “inner sanctuary” was overlaid with gold (1 Kings6:20, 22). Solomon’s prayer at the dedication of the temple wasmade before the bronze altar in the courtyard (1 Kings 8:22,54). The altar for sacrifices was much larger than the one that hadbeen in the tabernacle (1 Chron. 4:1 gives its dimensions).

Althoughmany of the psalms may originally have been used in worship in thefirst temple, there are surprisingly few references to the altar inthe Psalter (only Pss. 26:6; 43:4; 51:19; 84:3; 118:27). They expressthe psalmist’s devotion to God and the temple as the placewhere God’s presence is enjoyed as the highest blessing.

Afterthe division of the kingdom, Jeroboam offered sacrifices at the rivalaltar that he set up in Bethel (1 Kings 12:32–33). Anunnamed “man of God” (= prophet) predicted Josiah’sdesecration of this altar, which lay many years in the future(1 Kings 13:1–5). Amos and Hosea, who prophesied in thenorthern kingdom of the eighth century BC, condemned this and theother altars in that kingdom (e.g., Amos 3:14; Hos. 8:11–13).Ahab set up an altar to Baal in Samaria (1 Kings 16:32), and thesuppression of Yahwism by Jezebel included the throwing down of theLord’s altars in Israel (19:10, 14). The competition on MountCarmel between Elijah and the prophets of Baal involved rival altars(1 Kings 18), and Elijah’s twelve-stone altar recalls thatof Exod. 24, for he was calling the nation back to the exclusivemonotheism preached by Moses (1 Kings 18:30–32).

Withregard to the southern kingdom, the spiritual declension in the timeof Ahaz manifested itself in this king making an altar modeled on theAssyrian prototype that he had seen on a visit to Damascus (2 Kings16:10–14). He shifted the Lord’s altar from in front ofthe temple, where it had previously stood. Godly Hezekiah’sreligious reform included the removal of the altars at the highplaces that up to that time had been centers of deviant worship(2 Kings 18:4, 22). The apostasy of King Manasseh showed itselfin his rebuilding the high places that Hezekiah his father haddestroyed and in erecting altars to Baal (2 Kings 21), thusrepeating the sin of Ahab (cf. 1 Kings 16:32). Josiah’sreform included the destruction of all altars outside Jerusalem(2 Kings 23) and the centralizing of worship in the Jerusalemtemple.

InEzekiel’s vision of the new temple of the future, thesacrificial altar is its centerpiece (Ezek. 43:13–17). Thealtar was to be a large structure, with three-stepped stages and ahorn on each corner, and it was to be fitted with steps on itseastern side for the use of the priests.

Thesecond temple.The Israelites’ return from Babylonian exile was with theexpress aim of rebuilding the temple. The first thing that thepriests did was to build “the altar on its foundation”(i.e., its original base; Ezra 3:2–3). The returnees placed thealtar on the precise spot that it had occupied before the Babyloniansdestroyed it along with the temple. They took such care because theywanted to ensure that God would accept their sacrifices and so grantthem protection. At the very end of the OT period, the prophetMalachi condemned the insincerity of Israel’s worship that wasmanifested in substandard sacrifices being offered on God’saltar (Mal. 1:7, 10; 2:13).

NewTestament

Inthe NT, the altar is mentioned in a number of Jesus’ sayings(e.g., Matt. 5:23–24; 23:18–20). In the theology of thebook of Hebrews, which teaches about the priesthood of Jesus Christ(in the order of Melchizedek), the role of the priest is defined asone who “serve[s] at the altar” (7:13), and Christ’saltar (and that of Christ’s followers) is the cross on which heoffered himself as a sacrifice for sin (13:10). Another argument ofHebrews is that since on the most important day in the Jewish ritualcalendar (the Day of Atonement), the flesh of the sacrifice was noteaten (see Lev. 16:27), the eating of Jewish ceremonial foods is notrequired, nor is it of any spiritual value. The altar in the heavenlysanctuary is mentioned a number of times in the book of Revelation(6:9; 8:3, 5; 9:13; 11:1; 14:18; 16:7). It is most likely the altarof incense and is related to the prayers of God’s persecutedpeople, which are answered by the judgments of God upon the people ofthe earth.

The Bible often refers to songs, music, musical sounds andinstruments, and dancing. We can infer several details about theinstruments from their descriptions in the Bible as well as fromarchaeological finds and other ancient texts. NT references to musicare scant; the OT material may be supplemented by ancient NearEastern resources from Egypt, Canaan/Israel, Ugarit, and Mesopotamia.

Music

Style.Inall likelihood, Israel’s music sounded much like that of itsneighbors. This conjecture is particularly strengthened by findingsfrom Ugarit, a city on the Syrian coast across from Cyprus. Thesefindings, roughly from the time of the judges, mention some of thesame musical instruments found in the Bible, some of which have beenuncovered by archaeologists. The style of the poetry is very similarto the Song of Deborah (Judg. 5). Lyrically, some of the descriptionsand titles used by the Canaanites for Baal are applied by Israel toYahweh, to assert that he is the true God who has these attributes.Given these similarities in text, poetic style, and instrumentation,it is most probable that Israel’s music sounded much like thatof its neighbors. Still, there is some evidence for regional styles.The direction to play psalms “according to gittith”(superscription to Pss. 8; 81; 84) may refer to the style of Gath,and similar regional interpretations are proposed for otherdirections in the psalms.

Lyrics.The lyric side of Israel’s songs exhibits rhythm and deliberatestructure. The most obvious planned structure is the alphabeticacrostic, where the poet or songwriter composes one or more verses tobegin with successive letters of the Hebrew alphabet. But the psalmsexhibit many other structures involving symmetries and balance, suchas equal halves, centered lines, symmetrical patterns of stanzalength, and other features. The lines themselves usually demonstratebalance among their parts, having similar numbers of beats oraccented syllables. Several lament poems exhibit a particular patternknown as qinah meter, which presumably also fits a musical template.

Performance.The performance of the psalms was, on at least some occasions,accompanied by multiple instruments and performed in a choir toachieve the volume necessary for community gatherings, which had noamplification equipment. It is generally assumed, though not known,that all choir members sang melody rather than in parts. They maywell have integrated solo performances and musical interludes. Fromthe poetry of the psalms, we observe different speaking voices. Thatis, in some instances, we hear the voice of the king, or of thepeople generally, or an official who addresses the audience, or apriestly or prophetic speaking voice, even the words of God himself.This is very suggestive that public performance may have broughtdifferent singers to the foreground at different times. There arealso poems that employ a repeated refrain, suggesting an antiphonalperformance, and others in which the priests or people in Jerusalemtake up parts different from those of the arriving worshipers. Whilethe exact execution of these songs is speculative, these elementssuggest a certain amount of pageantry, at least for communitysettings. David is responsible for setting up Israel’s musicalorders for the temple, with professional musicians with rotatingresponsibilities (1Chron. 16; 25).

Instruments

Strings.Themost frequently mentioned instrument is the kinnor, a lyre, alsooften referred to as a harp. The sound box of the harp is at thebase, from which a straight or curved neck rises at a sharp angle sothat the strings going from the box to the neck are of differentlength. The lyre has two uprights and a crosspiece on top, from whichthe strings of similar length stretch down to the sound box. Thekinnor-lyre had eight to ten strings (based on Akkadian and Ugariticfindings and Jewish descriptions) and could be played with a pick orby hand. David’s “harp” was such a lyre. The “harp”mentioned in the NT (1Cor. 14:7; Rev. 5:8; 14:2; 15:2) probablywas also a lyre. Another OT lyre, or perhaps a harp, the nebel,complemented the kinnor-lyre. Jewish tradition about the stringsimplies that it produced a lower sound. The nebel-lyre is most oftenmentioned with other instruments, though occasionally alone. Anotherstringed instrument mentioned three times, the ’asor, may havebeen a harp or a lyre with ten strings (Pss. 33:2; 92:3; 144:9). InPss. 45:8; 150:4 there is mention of “the strings,” whichmay refer to more than just the stringed instruments specificallymentioned in the Bible. The ancient world also had lutes, aninstrument with a long, straight neck, fretted like a guitar orukulele, proceeding from a small sound box.

Percussion.Timbrels,cymbals, and castanets or rattles are percussion instrumentsmentioned in the Bible. The timbrel, also known from Egypt andUgarit, was a hand drum, like a tambourine but without metal jingles.The timbrel accompanies dancing and may have been used by the dancers(Exod. 15:20; Judg. 11:34; 1Sam. 18:6). Cymbals may have beenpaired or individual, but it is not certain whether these latter weresuspended cymbals or finger cymbals, being four to six inches indiameter. In 2Sam. 6:5 there is mention of another percussioninstrument, mena’an’im (the root of this word means “toshake”), perhaps “sistrums” (NIV) or “castanets”(NASB) (although the KJV renders it as “cornets”).Egyptian sistrums were small, forked, metal instruments with threesliding crossbars that had hooked ends. Archaeologists have alsofound rattles made of pottery, with ceramic balls inside. Castanetswere small hand-clappers joined with a string. Israel likely had allof these, though it is hard to know which is referred to in 2Sam.6:5. The cymbal is mentioned once in the NT (1Cor. 13:1),though not as musically pleasing in that context.

Woodwindsand horns.The OT attests to both an animal horn, most frequently called ashopar, and a metal trumpet, the khatsotserah (Num. 10:2–10).The NT refers to a horn with a word used to translate both OT terms(salpinx). The ancient world had both flutes and shawms. Shawms havea bell-like flare at the end, while the shaft of a flute is straightto the end. What is likely a double-reed shawm is frequentlytranslated “flute” (1Sam. 10:5; 1Kings 1:40;Isa. 5:12; 30:29; Jer. 48:36 [NIV: “pipes”]). It isunclear whether the instrument mentioned in Gen. 4:21; Ps. 150:4commonly translated as “flute” is a woodwind or astringed instrument. The NT also mentions a flute or reed instrument(Matt. 11:17; 9:23; 1Cor. 14:7; Rev. 18:22) that could beplayed for dancing or mourning.

Simplicityand complexity.Instruments such as horns, trumpets, and some percussion instrumentswere not used only for making music. The blowing of the ram’shorn or the trumpet might be used to sound the alarm, convene anassembly, or in preparation for an announcement. Aaron was to wearmetal bells on the hem of his robe when entering the holy place(Exod. 28:33–35). Some of the percussion instruments may havebeen used to augment dance and keep rhythm more than to make musicfor singing. The strings were the primary instruments to accompanysinging, though they were not necessarily accompanied by song.

Afew Assyrian texts treat the tuning and playing of music withtechnical notations. From their string designations and tuningdirections we can infer that their scales utilized seven notes as inthe modern octave (seven notes plus one repeating). The notes fortuning stringed instruments suggest that the tunings produceddifferent scales. Musical theory, then, was not completely absent.Many of the pictorial representations of musicians from Egypt andMesopotamia include multiple instruments being played together (cf.Nebuchadnezzar’s instructions in Dan. 3:5, 7, 10, 15 andDavid’s celebration in 2Sam. 6:5). These are not simplymultiple kinds of noisemakers, although community gatherings wouldrequire volume. Rather, they exhibit a sense of understanding whichinstruments complemented each other well. While the singing of theancient Near East no doubt included chanting, singing with multipleinstruments suggests something more melodious than mere chantinginterspersed with the strumming of a lute. This music could be styledto fit different moods, to soothe, to celebrate, to mourn, toworship. It is reasonable to suggest that the music accompanying thepsalms reflected the wide range of emotions mentioned in the text.

Dancing

Thedancing mentioned in the Bible is usually celebratory and positiveand is combined with singing or the playing of musical instruments.Such dancing may occur at any happy occasion but is mentioned mostoften in connection with victory or worship (e.g., Exod. 15:20; Judg.11:34; 1Sam. 18:6). The women of Shiloh “join in thedancing” (Judg. 21:21) at an annual festival, which impliessome manner of folk dancing. The dancing of Herodias’s daughterprobably was erotic (Matt. 14:6; Mark 6:22), and the dancing of theIsraelites around the golden calf probably was laden with sensualityas well (Exod. 32:19).

The central city and capital of ancient Israel. The originalmeaning of the name probably is “founded by [the Canaanite god]Salem.” The Amarna letters refer to a Beth-Shalem, and itsfirst reference in the Bible is Salem (Gen. 14:18). Throughout itshistory, the city has also been referred to variously as Zion, Jebus,Mount Moriah, and the City of David.

Thename “Jerusalem” occurs more than 650 times in the OT,particularly in the history of Israel, and in the NT more than 140times. The OT prophets used the city as a symbol of God’sdealing with his people and his plan. Jerusalem is viewedcollectively as God’s abode, his chosen place, and hissovereignty, while its destruction is also representative of God’sjudgment on apostasy among his people (e.g., Jer. 7:1–15;26:18–19; Mic. 3:12). The rebuilding of the city represents thehope and grace of God (e.g., Isa. 40:1–2; 52:1, 7–8;60–62; Jer. 30:18–19; 31:38–39; Ezek. 5:5; Hag.2:6–8; Zech. 8:3–8). Like the writers of the OT, the NTauthors spoke of Jerusalem in metaphorical and eschatological terms.Paul used Jerusalem to contrast the old and the new covenants (Gal.4:24–26), and the writer of Hebrews used it as the place of thenew covenant, sealed through the blood of Jesus (Heb. 12:22–24).In Revelation the concept of a new Jerusalem is related to the futurekingdom of God (Rev. 3:12; 21:1–22:5).

Jerusalemis located in the Judean hill country, about 2,700 feet above sealevel. It borders the Judean desert to the east. The city expandedand contracted in size over various hills and valleys. There are twomajor ridges (Eastern and Western Hills) separated by the TyropoeonValley. The Eastern Hill contains a saddle, the Ophel Hill, and northof this is the traditional site of Mount Moriah, where later thetemple was constructed. The Eastern Hill was always occupied, sincethe only water source is the Gihon Spring, located in the KidronValley. Two other ridges were important for the city, as they wereused for extramural suburbs, cemeteries, and quarries. To the east isthe Mount of Olives, which is separated from the Eastern Hill by theKidron Valley. To the west of the Western Hill is the Central RidgeRoute, separated by the Hinnom Valley.

EarlyHistory through the United Monarchy

Theearliest occupation was near the Gihon Spring, where Chalcolithicpottery (c. 3500 BC) and structures dating to the Early Bronze Age(c. 3000–2800 BC) were found. The Bronze Age city is mentionedin the Ebla tablets, Execration texts, and the Amarna letters.Melchizedek, the king of Salem, received gifts from Abraham andblessed him (Gen. 14). Abraham was commanded to offer Isaac as asacrifice on one of the mountains of Mount Moriah (Gen. 22:2), thelocation where Solomon later built the temple (2Chron. 3:1).The Jebusite city of the Bronze Age extended over the lower part ofthe Eastern Hill for about twelve acres, with a population of aboutone thousand.

AfterJoshua made a treaty with the Gibeonites, the king of Jerusalem,Adoni-Zedek, formed a coalition of five kings to attack Gibeon.Joshua defeated this coalition and killed the kings (Josh. 10). TheCanaanite inhabitants of Jerusalem are referred to as Amorites (Josh.10:5) and as Jebusites (Judg. 1:21; 1Chron. 11:4).

WhenDavid became king over both Israel and Judah, he made Jerusalem thepolitical, spiritual, and administrative center of his kingdom.Jerusalem became synonymous with David and was called the “Cityof David.” Transferring the ark to Jerusalem made it the newreligious center for the Israelites. David conquered the Jebusitestronghold through the tsinnor, possibly a water tunnel (2Sam.5:6–8; 1Chron. 11:4–7). He took up residence in thecity and began an extensive building program, but his vision ofJerusalem as the religious center was not fully realized until hisson Solomon became king and built the temple.

Solomongreatly expanded the city by building fortifications, the temple, andthe royal palace (1Kings 7–9). This was the first initialexpansion of the city as Solomon extended the city northward alongthe Eastern Hill, up the Ophel to the site of the present-day TempleMount. This expanded the city to about thirty-two acres, with apopulation of around five thousand. During the united monarchy,Jerusalem became the center of Israelite administration and religion.All Israelites were to come to Jerusalem three times a year forreligious festivals. Solomonic Jerusalem became the foundation forthe imagery bestowed on the city by the psalms (e.g., Pss. 46; 48;76; 84; 87; 122; 125; 132). Although major excavations were carriedout in the 1980s in the City of David, little is knownarchaeologically about the city of that period.

Fromthe Divided Monarchy to the Exile

Duringthe divided monarchy, Jerusalem was attacked by foreign forces.Jerusalem was attacked by Shishak of Egypt at the end of the tenthcentury BC (1Kings 14:25–26), by Syria and northernIsrael during the ninth century BC (2Kings 12:17; 15:37), andby Sennacherib of Assyria during the seventh century BC (2Kings18:13). Several Judean kings undertook building projects. Uzziahfortified Jerusalem by adding towers to the city walls (2Chron.26:9), and Jotham built the upper gate of the temple (2Chron.27:3).

Hezekiahgreatly expanded Jerusalem. The city doubled in size during his reignas it extended to the Western Hill (Upper City). The city thenencompassed about 125 acres, with a population of about twenty-fivethousand. It had expanded due to the influx of immigrants from thenorth when the capital of Samaria fell to the Assyrians. Hezekiahreinforced the Millo, built and rebuilt walls, and erected towers ashe extended the walls to encompass the Western Hill. In preparationfor the siege by Sennacherib, he constructed an underground watersystem to bring water from the Gihon Spring to the Pool of Siloaminside the city (2Kings 20:20; 2Chron. 32:2–4, 30;Isa. 22:11). Manasseh refortified Jerusalem with the construction ofa new outer wall (2Chron. 33:14). Jerusalem was invaded whenJehoiakim rebelled and was finally destroyed by Babylon in 586 BC.Prophets during the divided monarchy spoke of the destruction ofJerusalem, but also of its exaltation in later times (e.g., Isa.2:2–4; 24:23; Jer. 7:14; Mic. 3:12).

Archaeologicalexcavations have revealed much about Jerusalem during the time of thelater Judean kings. Several walls, towers, and fortificationsattributed to Hezekiah have been excavated in the Jewish Quarter.Hezekiah’s tunnel and the Siloam Inscription have beendiscovered, highlighting the preparations made by Hezekiah for theAssyrian siege. Several quarries and tombs have been found on theslopes of the Mount of Olives and the western slope (Ketef Hinnom) ofthe Hinnom Valley. In one of the Ketef Hinnom tombs, a silver amuletcontaining the earliest known biblical text (Num. 6:24–26) wasfound. Evidence of the Babylonian destruction was found inexcavations of the Jewish Quarter and the City of David. A group ofbullae (fired clay impressions) was found with the name of “Gemariahben-Shaphan,” probably the scribe mentioned in Jer. 36.

FromPersian to Roman Rule

Afterthe Persian conquest of Babylon (539 BC), CyrusII allowed theJews to return to Jerusalem and rebuild the temple. Judah became thePersian province Yehud, and Jerusalem was the administrative center.Nehemiah was appointed governor of Judea by Artaxerxes in 445 BC.Nehemiah undertook a hasty rebuilding project against the wishes ofthe local population (Neh. 2:19; 4:7). The rebuilt city wasconstricted to the area of the Eastern Hill, comprising some thirtyacres, with a population of about forty-five hundred.

Alexanderthe Great captured Jerusalem in 332 BC. This victory marked the endof Persian rule. Following Alexander’s death, his empire wasdivided between the Ptolemies of Egypt and the Seleucids of Syria.PtolemyI captured Jerusalem in 320 BC, but the Jerusalem templecontinued to be the center of local Jewish life and administration.The Seleucids defeated the Ptolemies and annexed Palestine around201–198 BC. The city and the temple were repaired during theirreign. During this period the Jews were struggling with theacceptance of Hellenistic culture. The high priest Jason favoredHellenization and transformed Jerusalem into a Hellenistic polis (aGreek city-state). Jerusalem became known as Antiochia, and the cityexpanded to the eastern slope of the Western Hill (Upper City). Jasonbuilt a gymnasium (1Macc. 1:11–15; 2Macc. 4:9–17).The Maccabeans revolted, and AntiochusIV destroyed the walls ofJerusalem, erected a fortress (the Akra), and desecrated the temple.Judas Maccabeus liberated Jerusalem in 164 BC, and the temple waspurified and rededicated (1Macc. 4:36–55). Hasmonean rulelasted from 142 to 63 BC. Hasmonean Jerusalem occupied the Westernand Eastern Hills. The Upper City was joined to the Temple Mount byan arched bridge across the Tyropoeon Valley (Wilson’s Arch). Afortress (the Baris) was built northwest of the temple. The Romansconquered Jerusalem in 63 BC under the rule of Pompey and endedHasmonean rule.

TheTime of Jesus and the First Century AD

Jerusalemduring the time of Jesus was largely the product of Herod the Great’spolicies and building programs. Herod was a Roman vassal and broughtHellenistic culture to the city. He built an amphitheater and atheater. Jerusalem became a city divided between the wealthy of theUpper City and the poor in the Lower City. Herodian Jerusalem’spopulation was about forty thousand, and the city extended over 230acres, not including suburbs on the Mount of Olives and west of thecity. Herod’s main building activity was the complex on theTemple Mount. Herod built a massive podium over the northern summitof the Eastern Hill. This podium stood forty-five meters high abovethe bottom of the Kidron Valley. This formed a rectangular platformfor the temple that measured 144,000 square meters. Most of theretaining walls are visible today, and the best-known section is theWestern Wall. To the south of the Temple Mount complex was the RoyalStoa, and on the northwest corner was the Antonia Fortress.

Archaeologicalresearch has uncovered several components and features of NTJerusalem. The temple rituals needed large amounts of water, andHerod built an elaborate water-delivery and storage system. Remainsof both subterranean and surface aqueducts are found from theBethlehem region to Jerusalem. Large water-storage pools are stillvisible today, such as the Serpent’s Pool in the Hinnom Valley,the Pool of the Towers of Amygdalon, the Sheep Pools, the Pool ofIsrael, as well as several other unnamed reservoirs and water-storagefeatures. Several segments of the city fortification walls were foundin various archaeological excavations, as well as remains of theAntonia Fortress and Herod’s Upper Palace with its three towersand adjacent Agora. Jewish Quarter excavations have revealed severalpalatial homes with various luxury goods, evidence of the wealth ofthe Upper City. These homes contained a courtyard surrounded by roomsand reception halls; several had private ritual baths. Excavations ofthe southern wall have revealed components of the Temple Mountcomplex, most notably the southern monumental stairway with theritual-bath complex building and the two entrances that led up to theTemple Mount. Several tombs and cemeteries have also been excavatedin the environs around the city.

Mostof Jesus’ ministry was spent in Galilee. He would have come toJerusalem at least three times each year to attend the majorfestivals. Of the Gospel writers, Luke most often referred toJerusalem and the temple as he framed his account of the deeds andteachings of Jesus. Although the events of Passion Week took place inJerusalem and its environs, the Gospels emphasize the events andteachings of Jesus, not the geography.

Theearly church started in Jerusalem with the events of Pentecost.Jerusalem was the origin and the center of the early church under theleadership of James. It seemed to serve as the center of theapostles’ authority, but the missionary zeal soon shifted theministry and focus of the church to the eastern Mediterranean.Jerusalem was destroyed in AD 70 by the Romans under the direction ofTitus. Jerusalem has been a central place for the Christian faith,whose followers acknowledge the city as the place of the death andresurrection of Jesus. Jerusalem played a major role throughouthistory and has always been a center of pilgrimage for Christians.

The Bible often refers to songs, music, musical sounds andinstruments, and dancing. We can infer several details about theinstruments from their descriptions in the Bible as well as fromarchaeological finds and other ancient texts. NT references to musicare scant; the OT material may be supplemented by ancient NearEastern resources from Egypt, Canaan/Israel, Ugarit, and Mesopotamia.

Music

Style.Inall likelihood, Israel’s music sounded much like that of itsneighbors. This conjecture is particularly strengthened by findingsfrom Ugarit, a city on the Syrian coast across from Cyprus. Thesefindings, roughly from the time of the judges, mention some of thesame musical instruments found in the Bible, some of which have beenuncovered by archaeologists. The style of the poetry is very similarto the Song of Deborah (Judg. 5). Lyrically, some of the descriptionsand titles used by the Canaanites for Baal are applied by Israel toYahweh, to assert that he is the true God who has these attributes.Given these similarities in text, poetic style, and instrumentation,it is most probable that Israel’s music sounded much like thatof its neighbors. Still, there is some evidence for regional styles.The direction to play psalms “according to gittith”(superscription to Pss. 8; 81; 84) may refer to the style of Gath,and similar regional interpretations are proposed for otherdirections in the psalms.

Lyrics.The lyric side of Israel’s songs exhibits rhythm and deliberatestructure. The most obvious planned structure is the alphabeticacrostic, where the poet or songwriter composes one or more verses tobegin with successive letters of the Hebrew alphabet. But the psalmsexhibit many other structures involving symmetries and balance, suchas equal halves, centered lines, symmetrical patterns of stanzalength, and other features. The lines themselves usually demonstratebalance among their parts, having similar numbers of beats oraccented syllables. Several lament poems exhibit a particular patternknown as qinah meter, which presumably also fits a musical template.

Performance.The performance of the psalms was, on at least some occasions,accompanied by multiple instruments and performed in a choir toachieve the volume necessary for community gatherings, which had noamplification equipment. It is generally assumed, though not known,that all choir members sang melody rather than in parts. They maywell have integrated solo performances and musical interludes. Fromthe poetry of the psalms, we observe different speaking voices. Thatis, in some instances, we hear the voice of the king, or of thepeople generally, or an official who addresses the audience, or apriestly or prophetic speaking voice, even the words of God himself.This is very suggestive that public performance may have broughtdifferent singers to the foreground at different times. There arealso poems that employ a repeated refrain, suggesting an antiphonalperformance, and others in which the priests or people in Jerusalemtake up parts different from those of the arriving worshipers. Whilethe exact execution of these songs is speculative, these elementssuggest a certain amount of pageantry, at least for communitysettings. David is responsible for setting up Israel’s musicalorders for the temple, with professional musicians with rotatingresponsibilities (1Chron. 16; 25).

Instruments

Strings.Themost frequently mentioned instrument is the kinnor, a lyre, alsooften referred to as a harp. The sound box of the harp is at thebase, from which a straight or curved neck rises at a sharp angle sothat the strings going from the box to the neck are of differentlength. The lyre has two uprights and a crosspiece on top, from whichthe strings of similar length stretch down to the sound box. Thekinnor-lyre had eight to ten strings (based on Akkadian and Ugariticfindings and Jewish descriptions) and could be played with a pick orby hand. David’s “harp” was such a lyre. The “harp”mentioned in the NT (1Cor. 14:7; Rev. 5:8; 14:2; 15:2) probablywas also a lyre. Another OT lyre, or perhaps a harp, the nebel,complemented the kinnor-lyre. Jewish tradition about the stringsimplies that it produced a lower sound. The nebel-lyre is most oftenmentioned with other instruments, though occasionally alone. Anotherstringed instrument mentioned three times, the ’asor, may havebeen a harp or a lyre with ten strings (Pss. 33:2; 92:3; 144:9). InPss. 45:8; 150:4 there is mention of “the strings,” whichmay refer to more than just the stringed instruments specificallymentioned in the Bible. The ancient world also had lutes, aninstrument with a long, straight neck, fretted like a guitar orukulele, proceeding from a small sound box.

Percussion.Timbrels,cymbals, and castanets or rattles are percussion instrumentsmentioned in the Bible. The timbrel, also known from Egypt andUgarit, was a hand drum, like a tambourine but without metal jingles.The timbrel accompanies dancing and may have been used by the dancers(Exod. 15:20; Judg. 11:34; 1Sam. 18:6). Cymbals may have beenpaired or individual, but it is not certain whether these latter weresuspended cymbals or finger cymbals, being four to six inches indiameter. In 2Sam. 6:5 there is mention of another percussioninstrument, mena’an’im (the root of this word means “toshake”), perhaps “sistrums” (NIV) or “castanets”(NASB) (although the KJV renders it as “cornets”).Egyptian sistrums were small, forked, metal instruments with threesliding crossbars that had hooked ends. Archaeologists have alsofound rattles made of pottery, with ceramic balls inside. Castanetswere small hand-clappers joined with a string. Israel likely had allof these, though it is hard to know which is referred to in 2Sam.6:5. The cymbal is mentioned once in the NT (1Cor. 13:1),though not as musically pleasing in that context.

Woodwindsand horns.The OT attests to both an animal horn, most frequently called ashopar, and a metal trumpet, the khatsotserah (Num. 10:2–10).The NT refers to a horn with a word used to translate both OT terms(salpinx). The ancient world had both flutes and shawms. Shawms havea bell-like flare at the end, while the shaft of a flute is straightto the end. What is likely a double-reed shawm is frequentlytranslated “flute” (1Sam. 10:5; 1Kings 1:40;Isa. 5:12; 30:29; Jer. 48:36 [NIV: “pipes”]). It isunclear whether the instrument mentioned in Gen. 4:21; Ps. 150:4commonly translated as “flute” is a woodwind or astringed instrument. The NT also mentions a flute or reed instrument(Matt. 11:17; 9:23; 1Cor. 14:7; Rev. 18:22) that could beplayed for dancing or mourning.

Simplicityand complexity.Instruments such as horns, trumpets, and some percussion instrumentswere not used only for making music. The blowing of the ram’shorn or the trumpet might be used to sound the alarm, convene anassembly, or in preparation for an announcement. Aaron was to wearmetal bells on the hem of his robe when entering the holy place(Exod. 28:33–35). Some of the percussion instruments may havebeen used to augment dance and keep rhythm more than to make musicfor singing. The strings were the primary instruments to accompanysinging, though they were not necessarily accompanied by song.

Afew Assyrian texts treat the tuning and playing of music withtechnical notations. From their string designations and tuningdirections we can infer that their scales utilized seven notes as inthe modern octave (seven notes plus one repeating). The notes fortuning stringed instruments suggest that the tunings produceddifferent scales. Musical theory, then, was not completely absent.Many of the pictorial representations of musicians from Egypt andMesopotamia include multiple instruments being played together (cf.Nebuchadnezzar’s instructions in Dan. 3:5, 7, 10, 15 andDavid’s celebration in 2Sam. 6:5). These are not simplymultiple kinds of noisemakers, although community gatherings wouldrequire volume. Rather, they exhibit a sense of understanding whichinstruments complemented each other well. While the singing of theancient Near East no doubt included chanting, singing with multipleinstruments suggests something more melodious than mere chantinginterspersed with the strumming of a lute. This music could be styledto fit different moods, to soothe, to celebrate, to mourn, toworship. It is reasonable to suggest that the music accompanying thepsalms reflected the wide range of emotions mentioned in the text.

Dancing

Thedancing mentioned in the Bible is usually celebratory and positiveand is combined with singing or the playing of musical instruments.Such dancing may occur at any happy occasion but is mentioned mostoften in connection with victory or worship (e.g., Exod. 15:20; Judg.11:34; 1Sam. 18:6). The women of Shiloh “join in thedancing” (Judg. 21:21) at an annual festival, which impliessome manner of folk dancing. The dancing of Herodias’s daughterprobably was erotic (Matt. 14:6; Mark 6:22), and the dancing of theIsraelites around the golden calf probably was laden with sensualityas well (Exod. 32:19).

The Bible often refers to songs, music, musical sounds andinstruments, and dancing. We can infer several details about theinstruments from their descriptions in the Bible as well as fromarchaeological finds and other ancient texts. NT references to musicare scant; the OT material may be supplemented by ancient NearEastern resources from Egypt, Canaan/Israel, Ugarit, and Mesopotamia.

Music

Style.Inall likelihood, Israel’s music sounded much like that of itsneighbors. This conjecture is particularly strengthened by findingsfrom Ugarit, a city on the Syrian coast across from Cyprus. Thesefindings, roughly from the time of the judges, mention some of thesame musical instruments found in the Bible, some of which have beenuncovered by archaeologists. The style of the poetry is very similarto the Song of Deborah (Judg. 5). Lyrically, some of the descriptionsand titles used by the Canaanites for Baal are applied by Israel toYahweh, to assert that he is the true God who has these attributes.Given these similarities in text, poetic style, and instrumentation,it is most probable that Israel’s music sounded much like thatof its neighbors. Still, there is some evidence for regional styles.The direction to play psalms “according to gittith”(superscription to Pss. 8; 81; 84) may refer to the style of Gath,and similar regional interpretations are proposed for otherdirections in the psalms.

Lyrics.The lyric side of Israel’s songs exhibits rhythm and deliberatestructure. The most obvious planned structure is the alphabeticacrostic, where the poet or songwriter composes one or more verses tobegin with successive letters of the Hebrew alphabet. But the psalmsexhibit many other structures involving symmetries and balance, suchas equal halves, centered lines, symmetrical patterns of stanzalength, and other features. The lines themselves usually demonstratebalance among their parts, having similar numbers of beats oraccented syllables. Several lament poems exhibit a particular patternknown as qinah meter, which presumably also fits a musical template.

Performance.The performance of the psalms was, on at least some occasions,accompanied by multiple instruments and performed in a choir toachieve the volume necessary for community gatherings, which had noamplification equipment. It is generally assumed, though not known,that all choir members sang melody rather than in parts. They maywell have integrated solo performances and musical interludes. Fromthe poetry of the psalms, we observe different speaking voices. Thatis, in some instances, we hear the voice of the king, or of thepeople generally, or an official who addresses the audience, or apriestly or prophetic speaking voice, even the words of God himself.This is very suggestive that public performance may have broughtdifferent singers to the foreground at different times. There arealso poems that employ a repeated refrain, suggesting an antiphonalperformance, and others in which the priests or people in Jerusalemtake up parts different from those of the arriving worshipers. Whilethe exact execution of these songs is speculative, these elementssuggest a certain amount of pageantry, at least for communitysettings. David is responsible for setting up Israel’s musicalorders for the temple, with professional musicians with rotatingresponsibilities (1Chron. 16; 25).

Instruments

Strings.Themost frequently mentioned instrument is the kinnor, a lyre, alsooften referred to as a harp. The sound box of the harp is at thebase, from which a straight or curved neck rises at a sharp angle sothat the strings going from the box to the neck are of differentlength. The lyre has two uprights and a crosspiece on top, from whichthe strings of similar length stretch down to the sound box. Thekinnor-lyre had eight to ten strings (based on Akkadian and Ugariticfindings and Jewish descriptions) and could be played with a pick orby hand. David’s “harp” was such a lyre. The “harp”mentioned in the NT (1Cor. 14:7; Rev. 5:8; 14:2; 15:2) probablywas also a lyre. Another OT lyre, or perhaps a harp, the nebel,complemented the kinnor-lyre. Jewish tradition about the stringsimplies that it produced a lower sound. The nebel-lyre is most oftenmentioned with other instruments, though occasionally alone. Anotherstringed instrument mentioned three times, the ’asor, may havebeen a harp or a lyre with ten strings (Pss. 33:2; 92:3; 144:9). InPss. 45:8; 150:4 there is mention of “the strings,” whichmay refer to more than just the stringed instruments specificallymentioned in the Bible. The ancient world also had lutes, aninstrument with a long, straight neck, fretted like a guitar orukulele, proceeding from a small sound box.

Percussion.Timbrels,cymbals, and castanets or rattles are percussion instrumentsmentioned in the Bible. The timbrel, also known from Egypt andUgarit, was a hand drum, like a tambourine but without metal jingles.The timbrel accompanies dancing and may have been used by the dancers(Exod. 15:20; Judg. 11:34; 1Sam. 18:6). Cymbals may have beenpaired or individual, but it is not certain whether these latter weresuspended cymbals or finger cymbals, being four to six inches indiameter. In 2Sam. 6:5 there is mention of another percussioninstrument, mena’an’im (the root of this word means “toshake”), perhaps “sistrums” (NIV) or “castanets”(NASB) (although the KJV renders it as “cornets”).Egyptian sistrums were small, forked, metal instruments with threesliding crossbars that had hooked ends. Archaeologists have alsofound rattles made of pottery, with ceramic balls inside. Castanetswere small hand-clappers joined with a string. Israel likely had allof these, though it is hard to know which is referred to in 2Sam.6:5. The cymbal is mentioned once in the NT (1Cor. 13:1),though not as musically pleasing in that context.

Woodwindsand horns.The OT attests to both an animal horn, most frequently called ashopar, and a metal trumpet, the khatsotserah (Num. 10:2–10).The NT refers to a horn with a word used to translate both OT terms(salpinx). The ancient world had both flutes and shawms. Shawms havea bell-like flare at the end, while the shaft of a flute is straightto the end. What is likely a double-reed shawm is frequentlytranslated “flute” (1Sam. 10:5; 1Kings 1:40;Isa. 5:12; 30:29; Jer. 48:36 [NIV: “pipes”]). It isunclear whether the instrument mentioned in Gen. 4:21; Ps. 150:4commonly translated as “flute” is a woodwind or astringed instrument. The NT also mentions a flute or reed instrument(Matt. 11:17; 9:23; 1Cor. 14:7; Rev. 18:22) that could beplayed for dancing or mourning.

Simplicityand complexity.Instruments such as horns, trumpets, and some percussion instrumentswere not used only for making music. The blowing of the ram’shorn or the trumpet might be used to sound the alarm, convene anassembly, or in preparation for an announcement. Aaron was to wearmetal bells on the hem of his robe when entering the holy place(Exod. 28:33–35). Some of the percussion instruments may havebeen used to augment dance and keep rhythm more than to make musicfor singing. The strings were the primary instruments to accompanysinging, though they were not necessarily accompanied by song.

Afew Assyrian texts treat the tuning and playing of music withtechnical notations. From their string designations and tuningdirections we can infer that their scales utilized seven notes as inthe modern octave (seven notes plus one repeating). The notes fortuning stringed instruments suggest that the tunings produceddifferent scales. Musical theory, then, was not completely absent.Many of the pictorial representations of musicians from Egypt andMesopotamia include multiple instruments being played together (cf.Nebuchadnezzar’s instructions in Dan. 3:5, 7, 10, 15 andDavid’s celebration in 2Sam. 6:5). These are not simplymultiple kinds of noisemakers, although community gatherings wouldrequire volume. Rather, they exhibit a sense of understanding whichinstruments complemented each other well. While the singing of theancient Near East no doubt included chanting, singing with multipleinstruments suggests something more melodious than mere chantinginterspersed with the strumming of a lute. This music could be styledto fit different moods, to soothe, to celebrate, to mourn, toworship. It is reasonable to suggest that the music accompanying thepsalms reflected the wide range of emotions mentioned in the text.

Dancing

Thedancing mentioned in the Bible is usually celebratory and positiveand is combined with singing or the playing of musical instruments.Such dancing may occur at any happy occasion but is mentioned mostoften in connection with victory or worship (e.g., Exod. 15:20; Judg.11:34; 1Sam. 18:6). The women of Shiloh “join in thedancing” (Judg. 21:21) at an annual festival, which impliessome manner of folk dancing. The dancing of Herodias’s daughterprobably was erotic (Matt. 14:6; Mark 6:22), and the dancing of theIsraelites around the golden calf probably was laden with sensualityas well (Exod. 32:19).

The Bible often refers to songs, music, musical sounds andinstruments, and dancing. We can infer several details about theinstruments from their descriptions in the Bible as well as fromarchaeological finds and other ancient texts. NT references to musicare scant; the OT material may be supplemented by ancient NearEastern resources from Egypt, Canaan/Israel, Ugarit, and Mesopotamia.

Music

Style.Inall likelihood, Israel’s music sounded much like that of itsneighbors. This conjecture is particularly strengthened by findingsfrom Ugarit, a city on the Syrian coast across from Cyprus. Thesefindings, roughly from the time of the judges, mention some of thesame musical instruments found in the Bible, some of which have beenuncovered by archaeologists. The style of the poetry is very similarto the Song of Deborah (Judg. 5). Lyrically, some of the descriptionsand titles used by the Canaanites for Baal are applied by Israel toYahweh, to assert that he is the true God who has these attributes.Given these similarities in text, poetic style, and instrumentation,it is most probable that Israel’s music sounded much like thatof its neighbors. Still, there is some evidence for regional styles.The direction to play psalms “according to gittith”(superscription to Pss. 8; 81; 84) may refer to the style of Gath,and similar regional interpretations are proposed for otherdirections in the psalms.

Lyrics.The lyric side of Israel’s songs exhibits rhythm and deliberatestructure. The most obvious planned structure is the alphabeticacrostic, where the poet or songwriter composes one or more verses tobegin with successive letters of the Hebrew alphabet. But the psalmsexhibit many other structures involving symmetries and balance, suchas equal halves, centered lines, symmetrical patterns of stanzalength, and other features. The lines themselves usually demonstratebalance among their parts, having similar numbers of beats oraccented syllables. Several lament poems exhibit a particular patternknown as qinah meter, which presumably also fits a musical template.

Performance.The performance of the psalms was, on at least some occasions,accompanied by multiple instruments and performed in a choir toachieve the volume necessary for community gatherings, which had noamplification equipment. It is generally assumed, though not known,that all choir members sang melody rather than in parts. They maywell have integrated solo performances and musical interludes. Fromthe poetry of the psalms, we observe different speaking voices. Thatis, in some instances, we hear the voice of the king, or of thepeople generally, or an official who addresses the audience, or apriestly or prophetic speaking voice, even the words of God himself.This is very suggestive that public performance may have broughtdifferent singers to the foreground at different times. There arealso poems that employ a repeated refrain, suggesting an antiphonalperformance, and others in which the priests or people in Jerusalemtake up parts different from those of the arriving worshipers. Whilethe exact execution of these songs is speculative, these elementssuggest a certain amount of pageantry, at least for communitysettings. David is responsible for setting up Israel’s musicalorders for the temple, with professional musicians with rotatingresponsibilities (1Chron. 16; 25).

Instruments

Strings.Themost frequently mentioned instrument is the kinnor, a lyre, alsooften referred to as a harp. The sound box of the harp is at thebase, from which a straight or curved neck rises at a sharp angle sothat the strings going from the box to the neck are of differentlength. The lyre has two uprights and a crosspiece on top, from whichthe strings of similar length stretch down to the sound box. Thekinnor-lyre had eight to ten strings (based on Akkadian and Ugariticfindings and Jewish descriptions) and could be played with a pick orby hand. David’s “harp” was such a lyre. The “harp”mentioned in the NT (1Cor. 14:7; Rev. 5:8; 14:2; 15:2) probablywas also a lyre. Another OT lyre, or perhaps a harp, the nebel,complemented the kinnor-lyre. Jewish tradition about the stringsimplies that it produced a lower sound. The nebel-lyre is most oftenmentioned with other instruments, though occasionally alone. Anotherstringed instrument mentioned three times, the ’asor, may havebeen a harp or a lyre with ten strings (Pss. 33:2; 92:3; 144:9). InPss. 45:8; 150:4 there is mention of “the strings,” whichmay refer to more than just the stringed instruments specificallymentioned in the Bible. The ancient world also had lutes, aninstrument with a long, straight neck, fretted like a guitar orukulele, proceeding from a small sound box.

Percussion.Timbrels,cymbals, and castanets or rattles are percussion instrumentsmentioned in the Bible. The timbrel, also known from Egypt andUgarit, was a hand drum, like a tambourine but without metal jingles.The timbrel accompanies dancing and may have been used by the dancers(Exod. 15:20; Judg. 11:34; 1Sam. 18:6). Cymbals may have beenpaired or individual, but it is not certain whether these latter weresuspended cymbals or finger cymbals, being four to six inches indiameter. In 2Sam. 6:5 there is mention of another percussioninstrument, mena’an’im (the root of this word means “toshake”), perhaps “sistrums” (NIV) or “castanets”(NASB) (although the KJV renders it as “cornets”).Egyptian sistrums were small, forked, metal instruments with threesliding crossbars that had hooked ends. Archaeologists have alsofound rattles made of pottery, with ceramic balls inside. Castanetswere small hand-clappers joined with a string. Israel likely had allof these, though it is hard to know which is referred to in 2Sam.6:5. The cymbal is mentioned once in the NT (1Cor. 13:1),though not as musically pleasing in that context.

Woodwindsand horns.The OT attests to both an animal horn, most frequently called ashopar, and a metal trumpet, the khatsotserah (Num. 10:2–10).The NT refers to a horn with a word used to translate both OT terms(salpinx). The ancient world had both flutes and shawms. Shawms havea bell-like flare at the end, while the shaft of a flute is straightto the end. What is likely a double-reed shawm is frequentlytranslated “flute” (1Sam. 10:5; 1Kings 1:40;Isa. 5:12; 30:29; Jer. 48:36 [NIV: “pipes”]). It isunclear whether the instrument mentioned in Gen. 4:21; Ps. 150:4commonly translated as “flute” is a woodwind or astringed instrument. The NT also mentions a flute or reed instrument(Matt. 11:17; 9:23; 1Cor. 14:7; Rev. 18:22) that could beplayed for dancing or mourning.

Simplicityand complexity.Instruments such as horns, trumpets, and some percussion instrumentswere not used only for making music. The blowing of the ram’shorn or the trumpet might be used to sound the alarm, convene anassembly, or in preparation for an announcement. Aaron was to wearmetal bells on the hem of his robe when entering the holy place(Exod. 28:33–35). Some of the percussion instruments may havebeen used to augment dance and keep rhythm more than to make musicfor singing. The strings were the primary instruments to accompanysinging, though they were not necessarily accompanied by song.

Afew Assyrian texts treat the tuning and playing of music withtechnical notations. From their string designations and tuningdirections we can infer that their scales utilized seven notes as inthe modern octave (seven notes plus one repeating). The notes fortuning stringed instruments suggest that the tunings produceddifferent scales. Musical theory, then, was not completely absent.Many of the pictorial representations of musicians from Egypt andMesopotamia include multiple instruments being played together (cf.Nebuchadnezzar’s instructions in Dan. 3:5, 7, 10, 15 andDavid’s celebration in 2Sam. 6:5). These are not simplymultiple kinds of noisemakers, although community gatherings wouldrequire volume. Rather, they exhibit a sense of understanding whichinstruments complemented each other well. While the singing of theancient Near East no doubt included chanting, singing with multipleinstruments suggests something more melodious than mere chantinginterspersed with the strumming of a lute. This music could be styledto fit different moods, to soothe, to celebrate, to mourn, toworship. It is reasonable to suggest that the music accompanying thepsalms reflected the wide range of emotions mentioned in the text.

Dancing

Thedancing mentioned in the Bible is usually celebratory and positiveand is combined with singing or the playing of musical instruments.Such dancing may occur at any happy occasion but is mentioned mostoften in connection with victory or worship (e.g., Exod. 15:20; Judg.11:34; 1Sam. 18:6). The women of Shiloh “join in thedancing” (Judg. 21:21) at an annual festival, which impliessome manner of folk dancing. The dancing of Herodias’s daughterprobably was erotic (Matt. 14:6; Mark 6:22), and the dancing of theIsraelites around the golden calf probably was laden with sensualityas well (Exod. 32:19).

The Bible often refers to songs, music, musical sounds andinstruments, and dancing. We can infer several details about theinstruments from their descriptions in the Bible as well as fromarchaeological finds and other ancient texts. NT references to musicare scant; the OT material may be supplemented by ancient NearEastern resources from Egypt, Canaan/Israel, Ugarit, and Mesopotamia.

Music

Style.Inall likelihood, Israel’s music sounded much like that of itsneighbors. This conjecture is particularly strengthened by findingsfrom Ugarit, a city on the Syrian coast across from Cyprus. Thesefindings, roughly from the time of the judges, mention some of thesame musical instruments found in the Bible, some of which have beenuncovered by archaeologists. The style of the poetry is very similarto the Song of Deborah (Judg. 5). Lyrically, some of the descriptionsand titles used by the Canaanites for Baal are applied by Israel toYahweh, to assert that he is the true God who has these attributes.Given these similarities in text, poetic style, and instrumentation,it is most probable that Israel’s music sounded much like thatof its neighbors. Still, there is some evidence for regional styles.The direction to play psalms “according to gittith”(superscription to Pss. 8; 81; 84) may refer to the style of Gath,and similar regional interpretations are proposed for otherdirections in the psalms.

Lyrics.The lyric side of Israel’s songs exhibits rhythm and deliberatestructure. The most obvious planned structure is the alphabeticacrostic, where the poet or songwriter composes one or more verses tobegin with successive letters of the Hebrew alphabet. But the psalmsexhibit many other structures involving symmetries and balance, suchas equal halves, centered lines, symmetrical patterns of stanzalength, and other features. The lines themselves usually demonstratebalance among their parts, having similar numbers of beats oraccented syllables. Several lament poems exhibit a particular patternknown as qinah meter, which presumably also fits a musical template.

Performance.The performance of the psalms was, on at least some occasions,accompanied by multiple instruments and performed in a choir toachieve the volume necessary for community gatherings, which had noamplification equipment. It is generally assumed, though not known,that all choir members sang melody rather than in parts. They maywell have integrated solo performances and musical interludes. Fromthe poetry of the psalms, we observe different speaking voices. Thatis, in some instances, we hear the voice of the king, or of thepeople generally, or an official who addresses the audience, or apriestly or prophetic speaking voice, even the words of God himself.This is very suggestive that public performance may have broughtdifferent singers to the foreground at different times. There arealso poems that employ a repeated refrain, suggesting an antiphonalperformance, and others in which the priests or people in Jerusalemtake up parts different from those of the arriving worshipers. Whilethe exact execution of these songs is speculative, these elementssuggest a certain amount of pageantry, at least for communitysettings. David is responsible for setting up Israel’s musicalorders for the temple, with professional musicians with rotatingresponsibilities (1Chron. 16; 25).

Instruments

Strings.Themost frequently mentioned instrument is the kinnor, a lyre, alsooften referred to as a harp. The sound box of the harp is at thebase, from which a straight or curved neck rises at a sharp angle sothat the strings going from the box to the neck are of differentlength. The lyre has two uprights and a crosspiece on top, from whichthe strings of similar length stretch down to the sound box. Thekinnor-lyre had eight to ten strings (based on Akkadian and Ugariticfindings and Jewish descriptions) and could be played with a pick orby hand. David’s “harp” was such a lyre. The “harp”mentioned in the NT (1Cor. 14:7; Rev. 5:8; 14:2; 15:2) probablywas also a lyre. Another OT lyre, or perhaps a harp, the nebel,complemented the kinnor-lyre. Jewish tradition about the stringsimplies that it produced a lower sound. The nebel-lyre is most oftenmentioned with other instruments, though occasionally alone. Anotherstringed instrument mentioned three times, the ’asor, may havebeen a harp or a lyre with ten strings (Pss. 33:2; 92:3; 144:9). InPss. 45:8; 150:4 there is mention of “the strings,” whichmay refer to more than just the stringed instruments specificallymentioned in the Bible. The ancient world also had lutes, aninstrument with a long, straight neck, fretted like a guitar orukulele, proceeding from a small sound box.

Percussion.Timbrels,cymbals, and castanets or rattles are percussion instrumentsmentioned in the Bible. The timbrel, also known from Egypt andUgarit, was a hand drum, like a tambourine but without metal jingles.The timbrel accompanies dancing and may have been used by the dancers(Exod. 15:20; Judg. 11:34; 1Sam. 18:6). Cymbals may have beenpaired or individual, but it is not certain whether these latter weresuspended cymbals or finger cymbals, being four to six inches indiameter. In 2Sam. 6:5 there is mention of another percussioninstrument, mena’an’im (the root of this word means “toshake”), perhaps “sistrums” (NIV) or “castanets”(NASB) (although the KJV renders it as “cornets”).Egyptian sistrums were small, forked, metal instruments with threesliding crossbars that had hooked ends. Archaeologists have alsofound rattles made of pottery, with ceramic balls inside. Castanetswere small hand-clappers joined with a string. Israel likely had allof these, though it is hard to know which is referred to in 2Sam.6:5. The cymbal is mentioned once in the NT (1Cor. 13:1),though not as musically pleasing in that context.

Woodwindsand horns.The OT attests to both an animal horn, most frequently called ashopar, and a metal trumpet, the khatsotserah (Num. 10:2–10).The NT refers to a horn with a word used to translate both OT terms(salpinx). The ancient world had both flutes and shawms. Shawms havea bell-like flare at the end, while the shaft of a flute is straightto the end. What is likely a double-reed shawm is frequentlytranslated “flute” (1Sam. 10:5; 1Kings 1:40;Isa. 5:12; 30:29; Jer. 48:36 [NIV: “pipes”]). It isunclear whether the instrument mentioned in Gen. 4:21; Ps. 150:4commonly translated as “flute” is a woodwind or astringed instrument. The NT also mentions a flute or reed instrument(Matt. 11:17; 9:23; 1Cor. 14:7; Rev. 18:22) that could beplayed for dancing or mourning.

Simplicityand complexity.Instruments such as horns, trumpets, and some percussion instrumentswere not used only for making music. The blowing of the ram’shorn or the trumpet might be used to sound the alarm, convene anassembly, or in preparation for an announcement. Aaron was to wearmetal bells on the hem of his robe when entering the holy place(Exod. 28:33–35). Some of the percussion instruments may havebeen used to augment dance and keep rhythm more than to make musicfor singing. The strings were the primary instruments to accompanysinging, though they were not necessarily accompanied by song.

Afew Assyrian texts treat the tuning and playing of music withtechnical notations. From their string designations and tuningdirections we can infer that their scales utilized seven notes as inthe modern octave (seven notes plus one repeating). The notes fortuning stringed instruments suggest that the tunings produceddifferent scales. Musical theory, then, was not completely absent.Many of the pictorial representations of musicians from Egypt andMesopotamia include multiple instruments being played together (cf.Nebuchadnezzar’s instructions in Dan. 3:5, 7, 10, 15 andDavid’s celebration in 2Sam. 6:5). These are not simplymultiple kinds of noisemakers, although community gatherings wouldrequire volume. Rather, they exhibit a sense of understanding whichinstruments complemented each other well. While the singing of theancient Near East no doubt included chanting, singing with multipleinstruments suggests something more melodious than mere chantinginterspersed with the strumming of a lute. This music could be styledto fit different moods, to soothe, to celebrate, to mourn, toworship. It is reasonable to suggest that the music accompanying thepsalms reflected the wide range of emotions mentioned in the text.

Dancing

Thedancing mentioned in the Bible is usually celebratory and positiveand is combined with singing or the playing of musical instruments.Such dancing may occur at any happy occasion but is mentioned mostoften in connection with victory or worship (e.g., Exod. 15:20; Judg.11:34; 1Sam. 18:6). The women of Shiloh “join in thedancing” (Judg. 21:21) at an annual festival, which impliessome manner of folk dancing. The dancing of Herodias’s daughterprobably was erotic (Matt. 14:6; Mark 6:22), and the dancing of theIsraelites around the golden calf probably was laden with sensualityas well (Exod. 32:19).

In the ancient world, shame and honor are two binaryopposites used to depict one’s status or behavior, which aculture approves or disapproves. The system of honor and shame servesas a primary means of social control. Thus, knowing how to act toconform to the code of social behavior expected by one’s groupis essential to the maintenance of that community.

Inthe Bible, the noun “honor” is representedby kabod (from the verb “to be heavy”) in the OT, and bytimē (from the verb “to honor”) in the NT. Thereverse of honor is shame, which is represented by a varietyof Hebrew and Greek terms, such as boshet in the OT, and aischynēin the NT.

InIsrael, the Holiness Code (Lev. 17–26; cf. Num. 5:2–3;8:6–7, 14–15) is comparable to the code of honor andshame. As a covenant community, Israel has the obligation to abide bythe sanction imposed by God to attain honor (Deut. 4:6–8;26:18–19; Pss. 34:5, 8–9; 37:18–19; 127:5; cf.2Chron. 26:18; Pss. 8:5; 62:7; 84:11; Rom. 2:7–11).Israel is honored (Exod. 32:11–12; Deut. 32:26–27) beforethe nations when God’s honor is upheld (Exod. 7:5; 10:1–2;14:4, 17–18). Violation of covenantal stipulations—forexample, deceptions in trading (Deut. 25:16), acts of “abomination”(Lev. 18:17, 22–23, 26–29), idolatry (Deut. 31:20;32:15–17), and failure to perform duties prescribed in the law(Deut. 25:7–10)—results in disgrace before others (Exod.32:25) and God (Deut. 28:25–26, 37).

Thestatus of honor can be ascribed to an individual. A person is morehonorable who is the firstborn (Gen. 49:3), comes from an esteemedfamily (Ps. 45:9), or is married into a dignified family (Gen. 41:45;Ruth 4:5). This worth will last a lifetime unless the reputation ofthe family is compromised, either because of economics (Ruth 1:1–21)or violation of the codes of conduct, such as adultery and incest(Exod. 20:14; Lev. 18:20; 20:10–21; Deut. 5:18; 22:22; Prov.6:32–33), though not necessarily divorce (Deut. 24:1–4).Certain groups of people are honored because of special privilegegranted to them (Prov. 8:15–16; Dan. 2:21; Rom. 13:1–5)—forexample, priests (Exod. 28:2, 40; Ps. 110:4; Heb. 7:21), kings (Ps.2:7), sages (Prov. 3:35), Israel (Exod. 19:6; Deut. 7:6; 8:11–9:7;26:16–19), and the church (1Pet. 2:9).

Wealthsymbolizes one’s status and claims respect for its owners (Gen.12:10–20; 14:21–24; 1Kings 3:13; Prov. 3:16; 8:18;22:4; Ps. 49:16; Isa. 61:6, 12) but does not equate the state ofbeing poor with shame (cf. Ps. 12:5) unless it is a result of morallassitude (Prov. 13:18). Parts of the human body symbolize worth andvalue. Certain parts of the body are less honorable than others, andto expose them is to invite disgrace (2Sam. 10:4–5;1Chron. 19:4; Isa. 20:4; 1Cor. 12:23–24).

Thestatus of honor can also be achieved by an individual’s merits(cf. Rom. 2:7–11). Certain types of behavior are honorable—forexample, humility (Prov. 15:33; 18:12; 29:23), taking care of one’smaster (Prov. 27:18), honoring parents (Exod. 20:12; 21:15; 22:28;Prov. 19:26; Mal. 1:6; Matt. 15:4; Eph. 6:2), good service (Gen.45:13), military exploits (2Sam. 23:19–23; cf. 2Chron.32:21), almsgiving and justice (Prov. 21:21). One important aspect ofachieving honor is the pursuit of wisdom. The ways of wisdom arehonorable (Prov. 3:16–17; 4:8; 8:18), preserving a person fromdishonor (Prov. 3:16–17, 31–33, 35; 24:14), but the waysof folly, such as injustice (Prov. 1:22; 14:31) and dishonoringparents (Prov. 30:17; cf. Exod. 20:12; 21:15; Lev. 20:9; Deut.27:16), are a disgrace (Prov. 20:3; 26:1). The failure to performone’s duty (Gen. 40:1–3) or a defeat in battle (Isa.23:9; Lam. 1:8; Nah. 3:10) results in shame and, accordingly, loss ofsocial status (Isa. 16:14; 23:9; Jer. 46:12; Lam. 1:6, 8; Hos. 4:7).An ultimate form of disgrace is to be hanged for public viewing(Deut. 21:22–23; Esther 5:14; 7:7–10; Matt. 27:32–44;Mark 15:22–32; Luke 23:33–43; John 19:17–24; 1Cor.1:18–25). In a patriarchal society, the status of women isobtained through their sexual exclusiveness. Their chastity (Gen.38:24; Lev. 20:10; Deut. 22:13–21; cf. 2Sam. 13:13; Song8:8–9) and fertility (Gen. 16:2; 30:2; 1Sam. 1:3–8)become indicators of family and social worth.